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www.wmo.int
Guide to Hydrological PracticesVolume I
Hydrology ñ From Measurement to
Hydrological Information
WMO-No. 168
Guide to
Hydrological Practices
Volume I
Hydrology ñ From Measurement to
Hydrological Information
WMO-No. 168
Sixth edition
2008WMO-No. 168
© World Meteorological Organization, 2008
The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, providedthat the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, repro-
duce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to:Chairperson, Publications Board
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03
P.O. Box No. 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 40
CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland E-mail: publications@wmo.intISBN 978-92-63-10168-6
NOTEThe designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of WMO concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries.Opinions expressed in WMO publications are those of the authors and do not necessarily reß ect those of WMO.
The mention of speciÞ c companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO
in preference to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.Supplement
No.DatedInserted
by date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2122
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VOLUME I
TABLE FOR NOTING SUPPLEMENTS RECEIVED
CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................................ ................................................................... xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ ........................................... xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ .................................. I.1-11.1 Background ........................................................................
................................................... I.1-11.2 Scope ........................................................................
............................................................ I.1-11.3 Contents of the Guide ........................................................................
................................... I.1-21.4 The Hydrological Operational Multipurpose System .............................................................. I.1-4
References and further reading ........................................................................
.................................. I.1-4CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION ........................................................................
.............. I.2-12.1 Introduction - The hydrological cycle as the subject of observation ....................................... I.2-1
2.2 Water resources information systems ........................................................................
............. I.2-22.2.1 Need for data and information ........................................................................
..... I.2-22.2.2 Hydrological information systems ........................................................................
. I.2-32.2.3 Uses of water resources information ...................................................................... I.2-5
2.2.4 Types of water resources information .................................................................... I.2-5
2.3 Hydrological symbols, codes and accuracy of measurements ................................................. I.2-7
2.3.1 Units and symbols ........................................................................
........................ I.2-72.3.2 Hydrological codes ........................................................................
....................... I.2-72.3.3 Accuracy of hydrological measurements ............................................................... I.2-12
2.3.4 Calibration of instruments ........................................................................
............ I.2-172.4 Design and evaluation of hydrological networks .................................................................... I.2-18
2.4.1 General concepts of network design ..................................................................... I.2-18
2.4.2 Density of stations for a network ........................................................................
... I.2-242.4.3 Speci c requirements for water quality ................................................................. I.2-28
2.4.4 Operational data acquisition networks .................................................................. I.2-34
2.4.5 Network-strategy options ........................................................................
............. I.2-342.5 Data collection ........................................................................
.............................................. I.2-352.5.1 Site selection ........................................................................
................................ I.2-352.5.2 Station identi cation........................................................................
...................... I.2-352.5.3 Frequency and timing of station visits ................................................................... I.2-39
2.5.4 Maintenance of sites ........................................................................
..................... I.2-402.5.5 Observation ........................................................................
.................................. I.2-402.5.6 Transmission systems ........................................................................
.................... I.2-432.5.7 Water-quality monitoring ........................................................................
.............. I.2-442.5.8 Special data collection ........................................................................
.................. I.2-462.6 Measurement of physiographic characteristics ....................................................................... I.2-47
2.6.1 General ........................................................................
........................................ I.2-472.6.2 Reference systems and data frameworks ............................................................... I.2-47
2.6.3 Point measurements ........................................................................
..................... I.2-482.6.4 Linear measurements ........................................................................
.................... I.2-492.6.5 Area measurements ........................................................................
....................... I.2-522.6.6 Volumetric measurements ........................................................................
............. I.2-552.6.7 Geographical Information Systems ....................................................................... I.2-55
2.6.8 Emerging technologies ........................................................................
................. I.2-562.6.9 Staff training ........................................................................
................................. I.2-57References and further reading ........................................................................
.................................. I.2-58PageGUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICESvi
PageCHAPTER 3. PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT ................................................................................. I.3-1
3.1 General requirements: accuracy and precision ....................................................................... I.3-1
3.2 Raingauge location ................................................................................................................ I.3-1
3.3 Non-recording raingauges .................................................................................................... I.3-3
3.3.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.3-3
3.3.2 Standard raingauges ............................................................................................. I.3-3
3.3.3 Storage raingauges ............................................................................................... I.3-3
3.3.4 Methods of measurement ..................................................................................... I.3-4
3.3.5 Errors and accuracy of readings ............................................................................ I.3-4
3.3.6 Correction of systematic errors .............................................................................. I.3-5
3.4 Recording raingauges ............................................................................................................ I.3-7
3.4.1 Weighingñrecording gauge .................................................................................. I.3-7
3.4.2 Float gauge .......................................................................................................... I.3-7
3.4.3 Tipping-bucket gauge .......................................................................................... I.3-8
3.4.4 Rainfall-intensity recorder ..................................................................................... I.3-8
3.4.5 Distrometers ......................................................................................................... I.3-8
3.4.6 Acoustic type ........................................................................................................ I.3-9
3.4.7 Methods of recording the data ............................................................................. I.3-9
3.5 Snowfall and hail ................................................................................................................... I.3-9
3.5.1 Depth of snowfall ................................................................................................. I.3-9
3.5.2 Water equivalent of snowfall ................................................................................. I.3-10
3.5.3 Snow cover ........................................................................................................... I.3-10
3.5.4 Hail pads .............................................................................................................. I.3-15
3.6 Rainfall estimation from catchment water balance ................................................................. I.3-15
3.7 Observation of precipitation by radar .................................................................................... I.3-15
3.7.1 Uses of radar in hydrology .................................................................................... I.3-15
3.7.2 The radarñrainfall equation ................................................................................... I.3-15
3.7.3 Factors affecting measurements ............................................................................ I.3-16
3.7.4 Snow and hail ....................................................................................................... I.3-18
3.7.5 Scanning strategy ................................................................................................. I.3-19
3.7.6 Summary of accuracy considerations .................................................................... I.3-19
3.7.7 Doppler radar ....................................................................................................... I.3-19
3.7.8 Multi-parameter radar .......................................................................................... I.3-20
3.8 Ground-based radar and rainfall monitoring techniques ........................................................ I.3-20
3.9 Operational radar networks ................................................................................................... I.3-21
3.10 Dual frequency microwave link attenuation measurements of rainfall .................................... I.3-21
3.11 Observations of rainfall by satellite ........................................................................................ I.3-22
3.11.1 Basics ................................................................................................................... I.3-22
3.11.2 Visible and infra-red .............................................................................................. I.3-22
3.11.3 Passive microwave ................................................................................................ I.3-23
3.11.4 Active microwave (rain radar; Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission) .................. I.3-24
3.11.5 Summary of accuracy considerations ..................................................................... I.3-25
3.12 Remote-sensing measurements of snow ................................................................................ I.3-25
3.13 Satellite remote-sensing of snow cover .................................................................................. I.3-26
3.14 Operational satellites ............................................................................................................. I.3-27
3.15 Dew ............................................................................................................................. I.3-28
3.16 Sampling for precipitation quality ......................................................................................... I.3-29
3.16.1 Rain and snow collectors ...................................................................................... I.3-29
3.16.2 Dry deposition collection ...................................................................................... I.3-29
3.17 Assimilation of rainfall into hydrological and hydraulic models: combining and assessingdata from different sources .................................................................................................... I.3-29
3.18 Global Precipitation Climatology Project ............................................................................... I.3-30
References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.3-30
CONTENTSvii
PageCHAPTER 4. EVAPORATION, EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND SOIL MOITURE ................................... I.4-1