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Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008
LocalGeographies ofGlobalPlayers:
InternationalLawFirmsin Brussels
1
MATHIEUVANCRIEKINGEN
,JEAN-MICHELDECROLY
MORITZLENNERT
,PIERRECORNUT
CHRISTIANVANDERMOTTEN
*FondsNationalde laRecherche Scientifique(FNRS)Laboratoirede Ge´ographieHumaine ,Universite´Librede
Bruxelles,Brussels,Belgium,**LaboratoiredeGe´ographieHumaine,Universite´LibredeBruxelles ,Brussels,
Belgium,
InstitutdeGestion del'Enviro nnementetd'Ame ´nagementduTerritoir e(IGEAT),Universite´Librede
Bruxelles,Brussels,Belgium
ABSTRACTLiteratureonworld citieshasrepeatedly arguedthatmajor agentsofglobalization, i.e. 'globalplayers'such asadvancedproducer servicefirms,transnational corporationsand internationalorganisations, playadetermining roleininterlocking citiesintonetworks ofcontrol centresofthe contemporaryworldeconomy. Itisvery rarehoweverthat analysescoverthe spatial distributionofthese globalplayerswithin urbansettings.We argueherethat localgeographies of globalplayersshed anewlight onhowglobalization isterritorialisedin cities.Followingan outline ofBrussels'position inEuropean andworldcity networks,thiscontribution analysesthe transnationallinkages, localstrategiesand intra-urbanspatialdistribution ofinternationallaw firmsinBrussels asa casestudy.Empirical evidencehighlightsthe playofagglomeration economies downtomicro-local scales(i.e.the street,theoffice building)andthe influenceofpast layersof organisationof urbanspaceon present-dayterritorialisationof internationallawfirms inthecity. Weargue thattheseresults areindicativeof howfurtheranalyses oflocalgeographies ofglobal playerscouldfoster adeeperunderstanding ofworldcities asglobal-localnexuses within contemporaryglobalization,hence combininginsightsfrom thetwomain existingresearch orientationsonworld citiestoday- focusedrespectivelyon inter-urbanorintra-urban analyses.
Introduction
Theinteractions betweenglobalisationandcities havegeneratedextensiveintere stin geographicalandurbanstudies literatureduring thelastdecades. Followingonfrommajor studiesby Friedmannand Wolff(1982),Castells(1989) andSassen (1991),worldcities havebeencon ceptualiseda scriticalglobal-localnexuseswithincontem porary globalisation(Knox&Taylor, 1995;Short& Kim,1999).Withi nthisseriesofworks, adivisionof tasksis apparent betweentwomainresearch orientations,focused ondistinct geographicalscales. Thefirstapproach analyseshow worldcities organiseglobal space,hencefocusingon theinter-urban scale.Withinthisframework,a shifthasbeen initiatedin recentyearsfrom
1478-2804Print/1478-2790 Online/05/020173-15q2005Taylor& Francis
DOI:10.1080/1478280050021 2418
*CorrespondenceAddress :MathieuVan Criekingen,PostDoctoral Researcherofthe FondsNationalde la
RechercheScientifique (F.N.R.S.),Laboratoire deGe´ographieHumaine,Universite ´LibredeBruxelles,
BoulevardduTriomphe, 1050Brussels,Belgium. Email:mvancrie@ulb.ac.be
JournalofContemporary EuropeanStudies,
Vol.13, No.2,173-187, August2005
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 studiesbasedupon measuresof cityattributes(e.g., Friedmann,1986)toanalysesbased uponmeasures ofthelinkagesandflo wsbetween worldcities, theirrelationalgeographies andpatterns ofglobalnetwork connectivitywithin thebroadercontextof Castells'space offlows (Taylor,1997;Beaverstocketal.,2000a). Theserelationalstudiesprovide much evidenceforthe determiningrole ofsomemajor agentsofglobalisationor 'globalp layers' (e.g.,advancedpro ducerservicefirms,transn ationalcorporations,int ernational organisations)ininterlockingciti esintonetworks ofcontrolcentresof theworld economythroughtheir corporatenetworkin gactivities andofficelocationstrategies. Thesecondresearch orientationfocusesonsocio-spatial configurationsandprocesses ofurbanchange withinworld cities,analysinghow economic,po liticalandcultural globalisationreshapesintra-urban space.Withinthisframework, aprominentemphasis hasbeenput uponpatterns ofsocio-spatial fragmentationin urbansettings(e.g.,Hamnett,
1994;Marcuse& vanKempe n,2000),bringin goutthe highlyunevenimpactsof
globalisationatthelocal scale. Inline withtheconceptualisationof worldcities asglobal- localnexuses,this contributionwillcombineinsights frombothabove-m entionedresearch agendas.It focuseson thegeographies ofglobalplayers attheintra-urbanscale.Altho ughthespatia l distributionofadvancedproducer servicefirms, transnationalcorporations,international organisationsandthelikeare basicallygrounded inlocational strategiesat inter-urban and internationalscales,the intra-urbangeographiesofthese globalplayers' offices, headquarters,representationsor secretariatscanhardlybe thoughtof asbeingneutral.Yet theanalysisof thespatial distributionof globalplayers withinurbansettingsas an empiricalapproachof 'glocalization'(Swyngedouw,1997)has beenleftvery much unexploredinliteratureso far(butsee Gerhard,2003).Usingtheintra- urbandistribution ofinternational lawfirmsinBrusse lsasa casestudy,thiscontributionshows that analysinglocal geographiesof globalplayersshedsanewlight onhowgloba lisationis territorializedinworldcities,stressing mostnotablythe playofagglome rationeconom ies atmultiple geographicalscalesandtherol eofpastlayersofsocio-s patialorgan isationof urbanspace . Inthefirst partofthis paper,Brussels' positionin Europeanand globalworldcity networksisoutlin ed,stressing thespecificlinkofthe city'stransnationalcapacity withthe presenceof themainpolitica lbodies oftheEu ropeanUnion(EU).Thefocusis setinthe secondparton therole ofBrussels intheglobalisati onoflegalserv ices,emphasizing the presence,activities,transnational linkagesandlocalstrat egiesofinternationallaw firms whichhaveestablish edofficesin thecity.Inthethirdpart, territorialisation patternsof internationallawfirmsin Brusselsare madeempiricallytangibleby mappingthe intra- urbanspatialdistribut ionof thesefirms.Hence,by lookingbothat thetransnational relationsofthe internationallaw firmshavinga presenceinBrusselsandtheir intra-urban distribution,weaimatcont ributingata betterunderstanding ofBrussels asaglobal- local nexus.Inconcl usion,wecomme ntonthepotentialbenefits offurtheranal ysesoflocal geographiesofgloba lplayersforacloser articulationofinter-urbanand intra-urban researchonworld cities.
Brusselsinthe WorldCityNetwork
Brusselsiscla ssicallycategorised withininternationalurbanhierarchi esasasecond-tier worldcity,well belowLo ndonand Parisandonasimilar footingwith - dependingonthe
174M.VanCriek ingenetal.
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 particularcombinationofmeasur esused - Amsterdam,Madrid, Milan,Viennaor Zurich intheEurope ancontext(Beave rstocketal.,1999a;Van dermotten,1999; Rozenblat& Cicille,2003).This aggregatepictur esaysactually littleonthecity'shighly ambivalent profileas,on theonehand, adominated corporateworld citywithlimit edcontrolover internationaleconomiccapi taland,ontheother hand,aleadingpolitical worldcity witha mainlyEurope anscope.
BrusselsasaDominated CorporateWorld City
Despiteitspromin entvisibility ininternationalmedia,Brussels hasreceivedrelatively littleattention inworldcityresearch(Swyngedo uw&Baete n,2001).This apparently paradoxicalsituationreflects abroaderbiasinliterature towardseconomicactors andthe business-orientedfunctionsof worldcities(seeBeaverstocketal.,1999a)while political actorsandthe political controlandco-or dinationfunctionsofworldciti eshavebeen comparativelyneglected(Taylor, 1997).Referringtoclassical - econo mic - attributesof worldcities,Brusse lsischar acterisedbyaverylimited controlcapacity overinternational capital.Onlyfouramo ngEurope's leadinggroups(turnove rover5billioneuros )are headquarteredinBrussels - compared to43in Parisor60inLondon(Rozenblat& Cicille,
2003).Thesechar acteristics reflectthewithdrawalofBelgiancapitalfrom industrial
investmentfromthe1960sonwa rdsandthe weaknessesof theBelgiansta teinsupporting thedevelopment ofnationally-basedtransnational corporations - unlik einothersmall- sizedEuropeaneconomi es(e.g.,Switz erland,TheNetherlands,Swed en)(Vander motten &Marissal, 1998). Incontrast, theBelgianeconomyhasbeenlargel ypenetrated byforeign-based transnationalcorporationsfromthe late1950sonwards.UScorporat ionshave playeda majorrolein thisinflowof internationalcapital, firstwiththe openingoflarge production unitsduring the1960s(e.g.,Fordplan tinLimburg ),thenwith theestablishmen tof Europeanheadquarterssincethe mid-1980swhosemainfunctionis toco-ordinate and maintaincontrolovertransnational productionprocesses inEurope. Theincreasing economicintegrationofthe EUmarketaswellas successiveinitiativ esby theBelgian governmenttoattract foreigninvestments withtargetedpoliciesandspecialtax arrangementshavebeen keydeterminantsinsustaining thisattractiveness, while proximitytotheEUand NATOheadquarters allowsforintense lobbyingactivit ies (Vandermotten&Marissal,1998). Bytheearly 2000s,about300Europeanheadqu arters ofUStransna tionalcorporations werelocatedinBelgium,with morethan60%of themin theBrussels metropolitanarea(American ChamberofCommerce inBelgium, 2003 - own calculations).Insum,although Brusselsis hometointernationalbusinessact ivities,mos t ofthemare subsidiaries orregionalheadqu arterscontrolledbyforeign-based transnational corporations.
BrusselsasaLeading PoliticalWorldCity
Thoughnota primeinternational financialand businesscentre,Br usselsisnonetheless extensivelyconnectedintothe worldcitynetwork(Derudder &Taylor, 2003) primarily becauseofthedevelopm entofthe EUpolitical apparatusthathasturnedthe cityintoa majorlocusof transnationalpolitica lcentrality (vanderWusten,2004).Brussels hoststhe coreexecutive andadministrativebodie softhe EuropeanUnion(Table1),withabouttwo
LocalGeographies ofGlobalPlayers175
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 thirdsofthe EUemployees workinginthe city - therestb eingemployedinStrasburg or Luxemburgmostly.Moreover ,the cityisalsohometothe NATOheadquarters (since
1967)andothe rintern ationalinstitutionssuchasWester nEuropeanUnion,Benel uxand
Eurocontrol.
Asaresult ofBrussels' transnationalpolitica lrole,intern ationalorganisations, lobbyists,legal andconsultancyfirms,internationa lmedia,region andcityrepresentation offices,etc.,have increasinglyclustered inthecity overthelastdecades.In thisrespect, Brusselsisnow theundisput edprimeconce ntrationofsecretariat sofinternationalnon- governmentalorganisations(INGOs) worldwide(vanderWusten,2004). Moreover,the positionofBrussels asacentre forinternational meetingsisfirmly asserted.To getherwith ParisandLondon, Brusselstops theUnion ofInternationalAssociations'(UIA)ranking of citiesaccording tothenumberof - strictly - internat ionalconferences (vandeWusten,
2004).
2 Toput itbriefly,Brusse lshasbecom eapolitical worldcity(Vandermotten,1999; Kesteloot,2000;Baeten, 2001;Elmhorn, 2001).Together withtheEU institutions, transnationalactivitieshostedin thecityaccounttodayforabout 55,000jobs (i.e.8% of thecity'slabo urmarket )and13%ofthecity GDP(MensenRuimte, 1994;IrisCon sulting
1998,2001)(Table 2).
Therationalebehind theconcentrationofthesetransna tionalagentsinBrusselshas beeninsightfully analysedbyC.Elmhorn(2001) whohasbuilt uponM. Storper's(1997) Table1.Totalemploymentin EUinstitutions inBrussels(permanent andtemporarystaff)
Employmentnumbers
Institution19811990 2001
EuropeanCommission7,007 11,16516,077
CouncilofMinisters 1,6912,0642,638
EuropeanParliamentand Ombudsman
a
2007921,670
EconomicandSocial CommitteeandCommittee oftheRegions b
373498797
Total9,27114,519 21,182
Sources:IrisConsulting(1998, 2001).
a
Createdin1995.
b
Createdin1993.
Table2.Totalemploymentin Europeanandinternational organisationsinBrussels
Employmentnumbers
19982001
EUinstitutions
a
20,05221,182
NATOandother internationalinstitutions3,397 4,345
EU-dependentactivities
b
7,94510,166
EU-relatedactivities
c
19,81020,151
Total52,15254,896
Sources:IrisConsulting(1998, 2001).
a
SeeTable1.
b Permanentrepresentatives(member statesandthird countries),internationalpress, regionandcity representationoffices,others c Internationalorganisations,international financesector,law andconsultancyfirms, congressorganisers.
176M.VanCriek ingenetal.
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 conceptof'economicreflexivity '.Themain argumentisthattransnational agentsare attracted - andmaintained - inBrusselsbecause ofatissueofintensetransactional activitiesbetweenspecialised protagonistsinEUmattersthat generatespecificknow ledge whichisvital forthes etransnational agentstogain accesstoandexploitfor theirown profit.Elmhorn haslabelledthiscohesiveset oflocalised relationsbetwee nspeci alised serviceactivitiesunder theexpression 'Europeanagglome rationeconomy' (1998:82). Brusselsisconceptualised inthisway as'theplacetobe'for specialistknow ledgefirms - suchaslaw firms - toaccess strategicinform ation,takeadvantageofhigh-level knowledge-transferexternalitiesandprovideela boratedservicestotransnational clients. Sincesuchtransfers basicallyopera tethroughdense andcomplexinter-personal relationshipsbetweenawide rangeofindividualsandorgan isations - withthe European Commission(EC)asthekey componentin thisensemble, theycanonly besustained ina contextof directproximity betweenthes emultipleprotagonists (Storper,1997).
BrusselsintheGlobalisatio nof theLegal Sector
Overthelast twodecad es,majorlega lfirmshave increasinglyturnedintokeyagents of globalisation.Brusselsholdsa prominentyethighlyspecificpositio nwithin thecontext of globalisationofthelegal profession.Withi nthehierarchy ofworld citiesdrawnupbythe GlobalizationandWorldCities GroupandNetwork, Brusselsisidentifiedas a'prime centre'forglobal legalservices - w hilebeingamong 'majorcentres'for global accountancyandadvertisingservices andamong'm inorcentres'forglobal banking services(Beaverstocketal.,1999a). Allotherprimegloballegalserv icecentresexcep t Washington,DC,aretransna tionalcorporate andfinancial commandcentres(i.e.Chicago, HongKong, London,LosAngeles,Moscow, NewYork,Paris, Singapore,Tokyo). Unlike functionsthataremostly specifictocentres ofpolitical power(e.g.,embassies, NGOs), internationallawfirms havethusa significantpresenceinboth majorcorporate and politicalworldcities.Moreover, Brusselsnow topstheranking ofworldcitiesby number ofLondon's majorlawfirmforeign branchoffice s(Beaverstocketal.,1999b)and thecity isamongthe fewmajor Europeanciti estogether withParis,Mosco wandFrankfurttoh ave asignificant presenceofUSlawfirms,although farbelowLo ndon(Beaverstock etal.,
2000b).
Asurvey ofinternationallawfirms' directories
3 conductedinJuly2003show s197 officesofinternational lawfirmsin Brussels.Thisfigureis slightlyhigherthan the152 internationallawfirms'office slisted in1997inthecity(Iris Consulting,1998).Thevast majorityofinternational lawfirms' presencesinBrusselsarein branch-officesof foreign- basedcompanies (153firms,77% - compared toonly38 Belgianfirms,19%). 4 The remainder(eightfirms,4%) canhardlybe categorisedneither asforeign-based noras Belgianlawfirm s.Rather, theyaresingle-officenich e-practicefirmsthat actasEU- specialistofficein diverseinternationalnetworksof independent legalfirm s.Hencemany nationalorregionallaw firmsin Europehaveindirectpresencein Brusselsthr oughthem. Aboutthreequarters ofthe 153foreign-based lawfirms inBrussels areheadquartered in Europe,withLondonlawfirm s(39)as theindisputable leadersonthe Brussels' internationallegalmarket,well aboveParislawfirms(19)(Fig .1).In addition, Brussels hostsinternationa llawfirmsoriginating fromallEU countries,exceptPortugaland some Central-andEastern-European newmember states.Moreover,allnon-Europeanforeign- basedlawfirm sinBrusse lsareheadquarteredinthe USA,mos tlyinNewYorkand
LocalGeographies ofGlobalPlayers177
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 Washington(12firmseach).While therankof NewYorkechoes thecity'sposition as USA'sprime worldcityintheglobalisation oflaw(see Beaverstocketal.,2000b,Fig. 2), thefactthat Washingtonappea rshereon anequalfootingwithNewYor k - andfarabove ChicagoandLos Angeles - sugg estsaspecific linkbetweenBrusselsandWashington,DC rootedin theirroleas transnationalpoliticalcomma ndcentres. Mostforeignlaw firmsinBrusse lsholdoffice swithlow staffnumbers, 65%ofthem employingless than10lawyers,whilemor ethanhalf ofBelgian firmshassta ffnumbers between11and 40(Table 3). Figure1.Headofficelocation offoreign-based lawfirmsin Brussels Table3.Numberoflawyers ininternational lawfirmsin Brussels Numberoflawyers Belgians%Foreign-based %IndependentEU-focused %
1133020225
2to5 5134529113
6to10 7182416338
11to 20924191200
21to40 1129117113
40to80 4114300
80þ137500
Nodata0 0138113
381001531008100
Sources:Authors'survey,July 2003.
178M.VanCriek ingenetal.
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 Thepredominanc eofsmall-sizedofficesshowsthatmos tforeignlaw firmsinBrussels holdEU-focused 'satelliteoffices'.Somefirm sevenhavenon-permanentdirect presence inBrussels, withdomestically-basedpartnersvisiting theBrusselsoffice periodically. Asanoffici alof anAustrianlawfirmstated :'wedonothaveany permanent lawyeratour Brusselslocationanymore, butweusedtohaveup to2lawyersand onesecretaryfrom
1996until theendof 2000.Since thenwechanged toa'Regus officessolution'withthe
possibilitytouseoffice, conferenceand secretaryfacilities wheneverweneedto cometoBrussels - whatwedo twotimesamonthIwoul dsay'(persona lcommun ication,
July1st2003).
Thesesatellite officesarenich e-marketedon EU-relatedissues incommerciallaw (e.g.,competition, tradelaw).Thislegalmarkethas beenboomingin Brusselssincethe early1990swhe ntheEC acquiredthejurisdictionover awiderange offinancial and commercialaffairswith theadventoftheSingle EuropeanAct(1987) andofthe Merger Regulation(1990).These legislativedevelopmentshaveproduced ablossomingof regulationsgeneratinginturn anewmassoflega landadvisory work.The bulkofthis new EU-relatedworkwastaken overbyforeignlawfirm swhileBelgian firms,historically ill- equippedtooffercommercial advisorywor kratherthan litigation,wereunableto capitaliseontheirgeogr aphicaladvantageto gaincontrolover thisnewmarket(Parnham,
2001).
Internationallawfirmsin Brusselsdrawmuc hoftheirworkfromreferral sfromthe firms'foreign-locat edheadoffice(Crossman,1995).Inotherwor ds,globalisation oflaw inBrusselshas beenclient-lednot inthe sensethatlaw firmshavefollowed theirmain corporateclientsin thecity(compareBeaverstock etal.,1999b)but ratherthatclients urgedlaw firmsto providethemwithspecialised legalknowledge andexpertiseaboutEU regulationsasthelatterincreasing lyaffected theirnational andtransnational businesses. Asinothe rspecialist legalcentres(e.g.,Piraeus andAntwerpforshipping law),Brussels houseshighly-focused small-sizedbranchoffices, whilethelargestofficesare housedin theinternational financialcentreswhereinternational lawfirmsservice theircore financial clientele(Beaverstock,2004). ThesituationinBrusselshighli ghtsinthissensea qualitativedifferencebetween internationalfinancialcentres andpoliticalworldcitiesin theglobalisation ofthelegalsector. Closecontactwith anddirectaccess totheEU mainlegislative andexecutivebo diesis ofvitalimportanc eforintern ationallawfirms'dailyworkin Brussels,i.e. representing clientsbeforethe EC(e.g., transnationalcom panieswishing tomerge,non-Europea n governmentsnegotiatinga freetradeagreementwith theEU),monit oringEUlegislat ive developmentsandlobbyingEUdecisi on-makers(Crossm an,1995;Ferguson, 1998; Evans,2004).This rationalepermea tesinmany commentsmadebyintern ationallaw firmsinBrussels .For instance,Ferguson(1998:39)reportsthe sayingsofthepartnerin chargeofthe Brusselso fficeatAllen &Overy, amajorLondonlawfirm withanoffice in Brussels:'Peoplewhosay youcandothis(EU-related competitionand antitrustwor k) inLondon,well ofcourse youcan,you candoit inTimbuktu, butyoudon't havethesame information,youdon'thave thesameconnecti onwiththeinstitutionsand therappo rtwith theCommission services.Thisisn'tsomething youcanwalk into'.Accordingly,themain motivationforinternationallaw firmstoconce ntrateinthecityisto gainacce sstoand controlflowsof strategic informationand knowledgeaboutEUlegislations, regulations andpolicies(Mens enRuimte, 1994).Theaforement ionedpredominanc eofLondonlaw firmsonthe Brusselslegal marketechoes inthisrespecttheassumptio nof Brussels
LocalGeographies ofGlobalPlayers179
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 playingforLondon lawfirms acomparable roletothe oneplayedbyWashington,DC for NewYorklaw firmsas dedicated locationforthefirms'politi callobbying practices (Beaverstocketal.,2000b). AsFlood(1995:150cited inBeaverstock etal.,2000b)sta ted, Brussels'(has)becom etheWash ington,DCoftheeast ,whereit isnecessarytohave a presencein ordertolobby theCommission'. AllbutfourUK top30intern ationallawfirm shavea directpresence inBrussels (Table4) - with threeoutofthesefourexceptions beingnationa lfirmswithout anyoffice intheEU outsidethe UK.Th isfindingstronglysuggeststhat thecosts ofholdinganoffice Table4.Brussels'presenceof UKtop30 internationallawfirms
Rank(by2003
turnover)Firm a
Permanentoffice
inBrussels (xyes/-no)
Numberof
lawyersat
Brusselsoffice(s)
Numberof
lawyersat otheroffice inBelgium b
1CliffordChance X520
2FreshfieldsBruckhaus
Deringer
X101 0
3LinklatersX 19030
4Allen& OveryX 11838
5LovellsX 240
6EvershedsX 130
7Slaughterand MayX6 0
8HerbertSmith X100
9DLAX 9310
10NortonRose X170
11AshurstMorris CrispX 290
12DentonWilde SapteX1 0
13Simmons& SimmonsX9 0
14CMSCameron
McKenna
X13 0
15HammondsX 120
16AddleshawGoddard X9 0
17PinsentsX 10
18SJBerwinX 100
19BerwinLeighton
Paisner
X40
20RichardsButler X10
21Clyde& Co- -0
22Baker& McKenzieX57 19
23NabarroNathanson X10
24Beachcroft
Wansbroughs
X30
25Irwin Mitchell-- 0
26Wragge& CoX2 0
27Barlow Lyde&Gilbert --0
28Macfarlanes- -0
29TaylorWessing X20
30MasonsX 10
Sources:Authors'survey,ranking offirmsfrom TheLegalBusiness 100,top100 byturnover,ed. 2003 (availableatwww.legal500 .com/l500/lb100-03.pdf). a Allthesefirms areheadquarteredor haveadirect presenceinLondon. b Allthesefirms' otheroffices inBelgiumare inAntwerp.
180M.VanCriek ingenetal.
Downloaded By: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] At: 16:21 27 June 2008 inBrusselsare overcompensated bythespecific benefitsdrawnfromadirectpresencein closecontactwith theEUlegislative andexecutivecentre - alsointerms ofpublic relationsstrategyto showareal commitmentto EUpractice(Budden ,1993a, 1993b). Thedistribution ofofficesbynumberof lawyersreflects theaforementioned predominanceofsmall-sizedEU-focusedsatelli teofficein Brussels,with14out ofthe30 majorUK lawfirmshavi ng10lawyers orless inthecity.Nevertheless,the largestUKlaw firmsinBrussels havenowsign ificantlydiversified intoBelgian commerciallaw practice inorderto maketheir localpresence moreprofitable.Thistrendhas beensign ificantly encouragedduringthe1990s bynumerous takeoversof Belgianenterprises byforeign companiesandprivatisationprocedu resofstate-own edcompanies,whichgenerated substantialcross-bordercommercial legalwork(Crossman,1995; Maiden,1999; Parnham,2001).Establishinga locallaw practicehasbeentypical lyachieved throughthe incorporationofanexis tingBelgianfirm (e.g.,Belgian firmLoeffClaeysVerbeke joined Allen&Ove ryin2001), resultinginthecreation ofhybridoffice swith largestaff numbers.However,merged officeskeepaclear divisionbetween theirtwoareasof practice,typically withmorestaffattach edtothe Belgianlawdepartment(e.g.,Linkl aters DeBandtfor Belgianpractices has160lawyers whileLinklaters EUhas30). Thistrendhas consequently putstrongpres sureonindependentBelgian firmsprac tising locallaw.In response,man yofthe latterhavepursueddive rsestrategiestoenter the internationalmarket,by mergingorforgingallianceswith otherEuropean firmsorby negotiatingaffiliationstointern ationalnetworksofindependen tlawfirms (Budden,
1993b;Ferguson,1998; Maiden,1999;Parha m,2001). Insum,'local isation'of
internationallawfirmsand 'globalization'of localfirmsgohandinhand onthe Brussels' legalmarket.
MappingtheInternational LegalSector inBrussels
Localgeographies ofglobalplayerssheda newlighton howglobalisationisterritoria lized incities. Analysingthelocalisation ofinternationallawfirmsin Brusselsstresses boththe playofaggl omerationforces attheintra-urbanscaleandtheinfluence ofpast layersof socio-spatialorganisationof urbanspace. Figure2 displaystheintra- urbandistribution offoreign-basedlawfirmsinBrussels.The distributionshowsahighlycent ralandconce ntratedspatia lpattern. Fifty-sixforeignlaw firms(37%of thesurvey) haveanaddress onAvenue Louise,thatis, aprestigious nineteenth-centuryavenueborderedwithbourgeoishouses andcloseto theBrussels 'Law Courts.TheEUdistrict( quartierLe´opold)isthe secondpromin entlocationwith 49firms (32%).The mapalsoshowssomesma llconcentrations alonglargenine teenth-century avenuesinaffluentsouth andeastern neighbourhoods.Henceafocuso nthe soleEU districtappears tobeatoonarrow windowtofully grasppatternsof territorialisation ofquotesdbs_dbs12.pdfusesText_18
Territoires, territorialit , territorialisation : et apr s