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Knowledge Management in
Theory and Practice
Kimiz Dalkir
Elsevier
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
IN THEORY
AND
PRACTICE
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENTKNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
IN THEORY
AND
PRACTICE
Kimiz Dalkir
McGill University
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier ButterworthÐHeinemann
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ISBN: 0-7506-7864-X
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Printed in the United States of America
050607080910 10987654321
Working together to grow
libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org This book is dedicated to my sons, Kemal and Kazmir, who are beginning their journey of discovery.
CONTENTS
Forewordxiii
Acknowledgementsxv
1INTRODUCTION TO KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Learning Objectives1
Introduction2
What Is Knowledge Management?4
Multidisciplinary Nature of KM6
The Two Major Types of Knowledge8
The Concept Analysis Technique9
History of Knowledge Management12
From Physical Assets to Knowledge Assets16
Organizational Perspectives on Knowledge Management 17
Why Is KM Important Today?18
KM for Individuals, Communities, and Organizations20
Key Points21
Discussion Points21
References22
2THE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT CYCLE . . . . . . . . . 25Learning Objectives25
Introduction26
Major Approaches to the KM Cycle26
The Zack KM Cycle26
The Bukowitz and Williams KM Cycle32
The McElroy KM Cycle35
The Wiig KM Cycle38
An Integrated KM Cycle43
Strategic Implications of the KM Cycle45
Practical Considerations for Managing Knowledge45
vii
Key Points46
Discussion Points46
References46
3KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODELS . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Learning Objectives47
Introduction48
Major Theoretical KM Models49
The von Krogh and Roos Model of Organizational
Epistemology50
The Nonaka and Takeuchi Knowledge Spiral Model52
The Knowledge Creation Process52
Knowledge Conversion53
Knowledge Spiral56
The Choo Sense-making KM Model58
The Wiig Model for Building and Using Knowledge61
The Boisot I-Space KM Model66
Complex Adaptive System Models of KM67
Strategic Implications of KM Models72
Practical Implications of KM Models72
Key Points73
Discussion Points73
References74
4KNOWLEDGE CAPTURE AND CODIFICATION . . . . . . . 77Learning Objectives77
Introduction78
Tacit Knowledge Capture80
Tacit Knowledge Capture at Individual and Group Levels 82
Interviewing Experts83
Structured Interviewing84
Stories86
Learning by Being Told89
Learning by Observation90
Other Methods of Tacit Knowledge Capture90
Tacit Knowledge Capture at the Organizational Level94
Explicit Knowledge CodiÞcation96
Cognitive Maps97
Decision Trees98
Knowledge Taxonomics99
Strategic Implications of Knowledge Capture and CodiÞcation 102 Practical Implications of Knowledge Capture and CodiÞcation 103
Key Points104
Discussion Points105
Note105
References105
viiiKNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
5KNOWLEDGE SHARING AND COMMUNITIES
OF PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Learning Objectives109
Introduction110
The Social Nature of Knowledge 114
Sociograms and Social Network Analysis116
Community Yellow Pages119
Knowledge-Sharing Communities122
Types of Communities123
Roles and Responsibilities in CoPs126
Knowledge Sharing in Virtual CoPs129
Obstacles to Knowledge Sharing132
The Undernet133
Organizational Learning and Social Capital134
Measuring the Value of Social Capital135
Strategic Implications of Knowledge Sharing137
Practical Implications of Knowledge Sharing138
Key Points139
Discussion Points140
Notes140
References140
6KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Learning Objectives145
Introduction146
Knowledge Application at the Individual Level148
Characteristics of Individual Knowledge Workers148
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives152
Task Analysis and Modeling159
EPSS160
Knowledge Application at Group and Organizational Levels 166
Knowledge Reuse169
Knowledge Repositories172
Strategic Implications of Knowledge Application172 Practical Implications of Knowledge Application173
Key Points174
Discussion Points174
Notes175
References175
7THE ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE . . . . . . . . 177Learning Objectives177
Introduction178
Different Types of Cultures181
Organizational Culture Analysis182
CONTENTSix
Culture at the Foundation of KM185
The Effects of Culture on Individuals187
Cultural Transformation to a Knowledge-Sharing Culture 190
Organizational Maturity Models201
KM Maturity Models204
CoP Maturity Models207
Strategic Implications of Organizational Culture209 Practical Implications of Organizational Culture209
Key Points213
Discussion Points213
Notes214
References214
8KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Learning Objectives217
Introduction218
Knowledge Capture and Creation Tools218
Content Creation Tools218
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery219
Blogs222
Content Management Tools224
Knowledge Sharing and Dissemination Tools225
Groupware and Collaboration Tools225
Wikis231
Networking Technologies232
Knowledge Acquisition and Application Tools236
Intelligent Filtering Tools237
Adaptive Technologies241
Strategic Implications of KM Tools and Techniques241 Practical Implications of KM Tools and Techniques242
Key Points243
Discussion Points243
Notes244
References244
9KM STRATEGY AND METRICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Learning Objectives247
Introduction248
Knowledge Management Strategy251
Knowledge Audit253
Gap Analysis256
The KM Strategy Road Map257
The Management of Organizational Memory260
Balancing Innovation and Organizational Structure263
Historical Overview of Metrics in KM266
KM Metrics268
The Benchmarking Method272
xKNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
The Balanced Scorecard Method275
The House of Quality Method277
Key Points279
Discussion Points279
Notes280
References280
10THE KM TEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Learning Objectives283
Introduction284
Major Categories of KM Roles287
Senior Management Roles290
KM Roles and Responsibilities within Organizations294
The KM Profession296
The Ethics of KM297
Key Points300
Discussion Points301
Note301
References301
11FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR KM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Learning Objectives303
Introduction304
Political Issues Regarding Access305
The Politics of Organizational Context and Culture307 How to Provide Incentives for Knowledge Sharing309
Shift to Knowledge-Based Assets313
Future Challenges for KM318
KM Research Issues319
A Postmodern KM?322
Concluding Thoughts323
Key Points324
Discussion Points325
References326
Glossary329
Index345
CONTENTSxi
FOREWORD
Knowledge management as an organizational innovation has been with us for more than a decade. As a discipline, it has reached a state of matur ity where we can now discern the principles, practices, and tools that make it uni que. As a discourse, it has engendered new concepts and categories for us to mak e sense of the many important ways that organizations use knowledge to create va lue. Given the richness of ideas and innovations that have emerged under the rubric of knowledge management, and given the tremendous interest in schools an d organizations to learn about the subject, it is something of a mystery t hat there are so few textbooks available. Perhaps it is because the field draws upon a wide range of subject areas, or perhaps it is because many different per spec- tives complicate the discussion of issues that engage knowledge manageme nt. Despite these difficulties, or perhaps because of them, there is a pre ssing need for a textbook that presents a thoughtful, systematic view of knowledge man- agement as a coherent body of management theory and practice. The book i n our hands answers this call. What then is knowledge management? The first chapter of the book gives a well-argued answer, but for our purposes here, we may define knowledge man- agement as a framework for designing an organization's goals, structures, and processes so that the organization can use what it knows to learn and to create value for its customers and community. Thus, there is no single, universal recipe for managing knowledge - each organization has to think through and des ign its own approach. This design process will have to encompass four sets o f orga- nizational enablers posed by these questions: What is the organizational vision or strategydriving the need to manage knowledge? What roles and structures ought to be in place? How to develop processes and practicesthat promote knowledge sharing and use? Which tools and platformscan support these efforts? For each of these enablers, research and practice in knowledge man- agement has identified principles, exemplars, and lessons that can hel p to plan and execute an effective strategy. Considering these enablers also highlights the special strengths of this textbook. First and foremost there is the question of vision and strategy - why t ry to manage knowledge? The book makes clear in its early pages how the creati on and application of knowledge can be the engine of organizational perform ance and growth. In their attempts to pursue this vision, many organizations quickly xiii discover that their most daunting task is to cultivate the norms of trus t, coop- eration, and mutual respect that nourish the creation and sharing of kno wl- edge. The book recognizes this challenge, and devotes an entire chapter to examining in detail the impact of organizational culture. Consider next the issue of roles and structures. Departments in organiza tions are naturally territorial and guarded about losing control of wher e their information goes to, and how it might be used. The book highlights the i mpor- tance of leaders such as the Chief Knowledge OfÞcer or the Chief Info rmation OfÞcer who champion the collective beneÞt of sharing information, and who remove the barriers that prevent cooperation between departments. At the same time, knowledge sharing cannot simply be mandated through formal authority. Some of the most valuable knowledge sharing occurs in communi- ties of practice that are self-organized around informal roles and relat ionships. A Þne chapter in the book discusses communities of practice in the co ntext of knowledge sharing. The process and practice of knowledge management is a central focus of t he book. After a survey of major theoretical approaches in the literature, the book develops a new synthesis that views knowledge management as a continuous cycle of three processes: (1) knowledge creation and capture, (2) kn owledge sharing and dissemination, (3) knowledge acquisition and application. This ÒKM CycleÓ model forms the organizational principle of much of the book, and is carefully considered in the Þrst six chapters. The balance bet ween process and practice is a delicate one. A process that is regulated stri ctly by rules and policies can stiße creativity and experimentation. On the o ther hand, relying only on informal practices may mean that new learning is dispers ed and unavailable to others in the organization. An alluring aspect of knowledge management is the range of tools and pla t- forms that hold out the promise of transforming the ways we work with in for- mation and knowledge. Thus, there are tools that capture and represent content so that it can be accessed efÞciently; tools that discover an d extract knowledge; tools that facilitate social networking and community buildin g; and tools that support communication and collaboration in groups. While the discussion of tools and techniques takes place throughout the book, a sy stem- atic analysis is presented in a well-structured chapter that covers many recent technological developments. A textbook is a pedagogical apparatus, and this book has incorporated a number of features that will enhance student learning and student-teache r interaction. Each chapter contains learning objectives, side-boxes of sh ort cases, summaries of main messages, and questions for discussion. Beyond these features, the most engaging quality of the book is the combination of ex peri- ence and enthusiasm that the author brings to the subject: the insights, the resonant examples, the lively language, and the occasional touch of humo r. The book is an invitation to students to embark on an exciting and rewar ding learning adventure.
Chun Wei Choo
Faculty of Information Studies
University of Toronto
xivKNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 1 1 INTRODUCTION TOKNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENT INTHEORY ANDPRACTICE A light bulb in the socket is worth two in the pocket.
Bill Wolf (1950-2001)
This chapter provides an introduction to the study of knowledge manage- ment (KM). A brief history of knowledge management concepts is outline d, noting that much of KM existed before the actual term came into popular use. The lack of consensus over what constitutes a good definition of KM is addressed, and the concept analysis technique is described as a means of clar- ifying the conceptual confusion that persists over precisely what KM is. The multidisciplinary roots of KM are enumerated, together with their contri bu- tions to the discipline. The two major forms of knowledge, tacit and exp licit, are compared and contrasted. The importance of KM today for individuals, for communities of practice, and for organizations are described, togeth er with the emerging KM roles and responsibilities needed to ensure successful K M implementations.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Use a framework and a clear language for knowledge management
concepts.
2. Define key knowledge management concepts such as intellectual capital,
organizational learning and memory, knowledge taxonomy, and com- munities of practice using concept analysis.
3. Provide an overview of the history of knowledge management and iden-
tify key milestones.
4. Describe the key roles and responsibilities required for knowledge man-
agement applications.
INTRODUCTION
The ability to manage knowledge is becoming increasingly more crucial in today's knowledge economy. The creation and diffusion of knowledge have become ever more important factors in competitiveness. More and more, knowledge is being regarded as a valuable commodity that is embedded in products (especially high-technology products) and in the tacit knowle dge ofquotesdbs_dbs5.pdfusesText_9
Start With Why - Earthgifts