BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Inductive reasoning is important to science but so is deductive reasoning
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2 déc. 2017 This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-. NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA.
logical reasoning
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13 mai 2022 This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative ... of arguments found in books on formal logic – forget ...
logical reasoning
Basic Concepts in Logic and Argumentation - pdf ebook
What is an Argument? Since#arguments#are#at#the#heart#of#logic#and#argumentation#it^s#natural#
Basic Concepts in Logic and Argumentation
Logic-and-Critical-Reasoning-Book
Logic and critical reasoning comprise that domain of inquiry where arguments are the basic objects of investigation. From a logical point of view arguments are
Logic and Critical Reasoning Book
Understanding Arguments
Arguments. An Introduction to Informal Logic. NINTH EDITION. Walter Sinnott-Armstrong. Duke University. Robert J. Fogelin. Dartmouth College.
LibraryFile
LOGICAL REASONING IN HUMANITARIAN ANALYSIS
Inference the process of claiming that the premises support the conclusion
acaps technical brief logical reasoning in humanitarian analysis april
Chapter 6 - Categorical Arguments
Logic: A Brief Introduction. Ronald L. Hall Stetson University Deductive arguments sometimes take a form called a syllogism. A syllogism is a deductive ...
G. Chapter
Bridging the gap between abstract argumentation systems and logic
Tarski defines an abstract monotonic logic as a set of formulas and a consequence operator that satisfies some axiom. We show how to build arguments from any
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DAGN: Discourse-Aware Graph Network for Logical Reasoning
We obtain discourse features via graph neural networks to facilitate logical reasoning in QA models. • We show the effectiveness of using logic graph and
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i updated: May 13, 2022 Logical Reasoning
Bradley H. Dowden
Philosophy Department
California State University Sacramento
Sacramento, CA 95819 USA
iiPreface
Copyright
© 2011, 2020 by Bradley H. Dowden
This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-
commercially, as long as they credit you and license their new creations under the identical terms. An earlier version of the
book was published on paper by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN
number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights
to the original author, Bradley Dowden. The current version has been significantly revised. The current online
version is 508-compliant for people with disabilities. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author
would appreciate your writing to him at dowden@csus.edu. iiiPraise
Comments on the earlier 1993 paper edition, published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, which is owned by Cengage Learning: "There is a great deal of coherence. The chapters build on one another. The organization is sound and the author does a superior job of presenting the structure of arguments. " David M. Adams, California State Polytechnic University "These examples work quite well. Their diversity, literacy, ethnic sensitivity, and relevancy should attract readers." Stanley Baronett. Jr., University of Nevada Las Vegas Far too many authors of contemporary texts in informal logic keeping an eye on the sorts of arguments found in books on formal logic forget, or underplay, how much of our daily reasoning is concerned not with arguments leading to truth-valued conclusions but with making choices, assessing reasons, seeking advice, etc. Dowden gets the balance and the emphasis right.Norman Swartz, Simon Fraser University
ivAcknowledgments
The following friends and colleagues deserve thanks for their help and encouragement with this project: Clifford Anderson, Hellan Roth Dowden, Louise Dowden, Robert Foreman, Richard Gould, Kenneth King, Marjorie Lee, Elizabeth Perry, Heidi Wackerli, Perry Weddle, Tiffany Whetstone, and the following reviewers: David Adams, California State Polytechnic University; Stanley Baronett, Jr., University of Nevada-Las Vegas; Shirley J. Bell, University of Arkansas atMonticello; Phyllis Berger, Diablo Valley College; Kevin Galvin, East Los Angeles College;
Jacquelyn Ann Kegley, California State University-Bakersfield; Darryl Mehring, University of Colorado at Denver; Dean J. Nelson, Dutchess Community College; James E. Parejko, Chicago State University; Robert Sessions, Kirkwood Community College; and Stephanie Tucker, California State University Sacramento. Thinking and writing about logical reasoning has been enjoyable for me, but special thanks go to my children, Joshua, 8, and Justine, 3, for comic relief during the months of writing. This book is dedicated to them. This book is dedicated to my wife Hellan whose good advice has improved the book in many ways. vTable of Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Copyright ................................................................................................................................................ ii
Praise .......................................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ iv
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... v
C H A P T E R1 How to Reason Logically ........................................................................................ 1
Facing a Decision as a Critical Thinker ............................................................................................... 2
Advice for Logical Reasoners ............................................................................................................... 5
Examples of Good Reasoning............................................................................................................. 15
Review of Major Points ....................................................................................................................... 19
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 20
C H A P T E R2 Claims, Issues, and Arguments ............................................................................ 25
What is a Statement? ............................................................................................................................ 25
What is an Argument? ......................................................................................................................... 27
What is the Issue? ................................................................................................................................. 30
What is a Proof? .................................................................................................................................... 33
Indicators ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Premise Indicators ............................................................................................................................ 36
Conclusion Indicators ...................................................................................................................... 36
Discount Indicators .......................................................................................................................... 40
Rewriting Arguments in Standard Form .......................................................................................... 41
Conditionals and the Word If ............................................................................................................. 42
Deductively Valid and Inductively Strong....................................................................................... 46
Uncovering Implicit Premises ............................................................................................................ 48
Locating Unstated Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 53
Detecting Obscure Argumentation ................................................................................................... 56
Descriptions and Explanations .......................................................................................................... 60
Review of Major Points ....................................................................................................................... 68
viGlossary ............................................................................................................................................. 69
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 71
C H A P T E R3 Writing with the Appropriate Precision .............................................................. 92
Being Ambiguous................................................................................................................................. 93
Context and Background Knowledge ........................................................................................... 95
Disambiguation by Machine ........................................................................................................ 100
Semantic Disagreements ............................................................................................................... 101
Equivocation ................................................................................................................................... 101
Being Too Vague ................................................................................................................................ 103
Being Too General .............................................................................................................................. 106
Being Pseudoprecise .......................................................................................................................... 110
Improper Operationalization ........................................................................................................... 112
Creating Helpful Definitions ............................................................................................................ 115
Different Definitions for Different Purposes .............................................................................. 116
How to Avoid Errors when Creating Definitions ..................................................................... 120
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 123
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 124
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 127
C H A P T E R4 How to Evaluate Information and Judge Credibility..................................... 144
The Principles of Charity and Fidelity ............................................................................................ 145
When Should You Accept an Unusual Statement? ....................................................................... 147
Assessing a Source's Credibility .................................................................................................. 151
Seeking a Second Opinion ............................................................................................................ 154
Trust Me, I Know It on Good Authority ..................................................................................... 157
Suspending Belief ........................................................................................................................... 158
Getting Solid Information about Whom to Vote For .................................................................... 160
Fake News and Misinformation ...................................................................................................... 165
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 173
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................... 174
Exercises .............................................................................................................................................. 175
C H A P T E R5 Obstacles to Better Communication .................................................................. 183
viiNot Realizing What You Are Saying ............................................................................................... 183
Abusing Rules of Grammar .............................................................................................................. 185
Over-Using Euphemisms .................................................................................................................. 188
Unintended Innuendo ....................................................................................................................... 190
Disobeying Rules of Discourse......................................................................................................... 192
Not Sticking to the Issue and Not Treating It Fairly ..................................................................... 193
Not Accepting the Burden of Proof ............................................................................................. 193
Diverting Attention from the Issue ............................................................................................. 195
Giving Too Many Details .................................................................................................................. 201
Re-defining the Issue ......................................................................................................................... 202
Covering Up the Reasons That Favor Your Opponent ................................................................ 204
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 205
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 206
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 207
C H A P T E R6 Writing to Convince Others ................................................................................ 218
Writing with Precision and to Your Audience .............................................................................. 220
The Introduction............................................................................................................................. 221
The Middle ...................................................................................................................................... 223
The Ending ...................................................................................................................................... 224
Digressions ...................................................................................................................................... 225
Improving Your Writing Style ......................................................................................................... 226
Proving Your Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 228
Creating Counterarguments ............................................................................................................. 231
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 240
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 241
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 241
C H A P T E R7 Defending Against Deception ............................................................................. 247
Deception Is All Around Us ............................................................................................................. 247
Exaggeration and Lying .................................................................................................................... 249
Telling Only Half the Truth .............................................................................................................. 252
i updated: May 13, 2022Logical Reasoning
Bradley H. Dowden
Philosophy Department
California State University Sacramento
Sacramento, CA 95819 USA
iiPreface
Copyright
© 2011, 2020 by Bradley H. Dowden
This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-
commercially, as long as they credit you and license their new creations under the identical terms. An earlier version of the
book was published on paper by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN
number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights
to the original author, Bradley Dowden. The current version has been significantly revised. The current online
version is 508-compliant for people with disabilities. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author
would appreciate your writing to him at dowden@csus.edu. iiiPraise
Comments on the earlier 1993 paper edition, published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, which is owned by Cengage Learning: "There is a great deal of coherence. The chapters build on one another. The organization is sound and the author does a superior job of presenting the structure of arguments. " David M. Adams, California State Polytechnic University "These examples work quite well. Their diversity, literacy, ethnic sensitivity, and relevancy should attract readers." Stanley Baronett. Jr., University of Nevada Las Vegas Far too many authors of contemporary texts in informal logic keeping an eye on the sorts of arguments found in books on formal logic forget, or underplay, how much of our daily reasoning is concerned not with arguments leading to truth-valued conclusions but with making choices, assessing reasons, seeking advice, etc. Dowden gets the balance and the emphasis right.Norman Swartz, Simon Fraser University
ivAcknowledgments
The following friends and colleagues deserve thanks for their help and encouragement with this project: Clifford Anderson, Hellan Roth Dowden, Louise Dowden, Robert Foreman, Richard Gould, Kenneth King, Marjorie Lee, Elizabeth Perry, Heidi Wackerli, Perry Weddle, Tiffany Whetstone, and the following reviewers: David Adams, California State Polytechnic University; Stanley Baronett, Jr., University of Nevada-Las Vegas; Shirley J. Bell, University of Arkansas atMonticello; Phyllis Berger, Diablo Valley College; Kevin Galvin, East Los Angeles College;
Jacquelyn Ann Kegley, California State University-Bakersfield; Darryl Mehring, University of Colorado at Denver; Dean J. Nelson, Dutchess Community College; James E. Parejko, Chicago State University; Robert Sessions, Kirkwood Community College; and Stephanie Tucker, California State University Sacramento. Thinking and writing about logical reasoning has been enjoyable for me, but special thanks go to my children, Joshua, 8, and Justine, 3, for comic relief during the months of writing. This book is dedicated to them. This book is dedicated to my wife Hellan whose good advice has improved the book in many ways. vTable of Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Copyright ................................................................................................................................................ ii
Praise .......................................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ iv
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... v
C H A P T E R1 How to Reason Logically ........................................................................................ 1
Facing a Decision as a Critical Thinker ............................................................................................... 2
Advice for Logical Reasoners ............................................................................................................... 5
Examples of Good Reasoning............................................................................................................. 15
Review of Major Points ....................................................................................................................... 19
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 20
C H A P T E R2 Claims, Issues, and Arguments ............................................................................ 25
What is a Statement? ............................................................................................................................ 25
What is an Argument? ......................................................................................................................... 27
What is the Issue? ................................................................................................................................. 30
What is a Proof? .................................................................................................................................... 33
Indicators ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Premise Indicators ............................................................................................................................ 36
Conclusion Indicators ...................................................................................................................... 36
Discount Indicators .......................................................................................................................... 40
Rewriting Arguments in Standard Form .......................................................................................... 41
Conditionals and the Word If ............................................................................................................. 42
Deductively Valid and Inductively Strong....................................................................................... 46
Uncovering Implicit Premises ............................................................................................................ 48
Locating Unstated Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 53
Detecting Obscure Argumentation ................................................................................................... 56
Descriptions and Explanations .......................................................................................................... 60
Review of Major Points ....................................................................................................................... 68
viGlossary ............................................................................................................................................. 69
Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 71
C H A P T E R3 Writing with the Appropriate Precision .............................................................. 92
Being Ambiguous................................................................................................................................. 93
Context and Background Knowledge ........................................................................................... 95
Disambiguation by Machine ........................................................................................................ 100
Semantic Disagreements ............................................................................................................... 101
Equivocation ................................................................................................................................... 101
Being Too Vague ................................................................................................................................ 103
Being Too General .............................................................................................................................. 106
Being Pseudoprecise .......................................................................................................................... 110
Improper Operationalization ........................................................................................................... 112
Creating Helpful Definitions ............................................................................................................ 115
Different Definitions for Different Purposes .............................................................................. 116
How to Avoid Errors when Creating Definitions ..................................................................... 120
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 123
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 124
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 127
C H A P T E R4 How to Evaluate Information and Judge Credibility..................................... 144
The Principles of Charity and Fidelity ............................................................................................ 145
When Should You Accept an Unusual Statement? ....................................................................... 147
Assessing a Source's Credibility .................................................................................................. 151
Seeking a Second Opinion ............................................................................................................ 154
Trust Me, I Know It on Good Authority ..................................................................................... 157
Suspending Belief ........................................................................................................................... 158
Getting Solid Information about Whom to Vote For .................................................................... 160
Fake News and Misinformation ...................................................................................................... 165
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 173
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................... 174
Exercises .............................................................................................................................................. 175
C H A P T E R5 Obstacles to Better Communication .................................................................. 183
viiNot Realizing What You Are Saying ............................................................................................... 183
Abusing Rules of Grammar .............................................................................................................. 185
Over-Using Euphemisms .................................................................................................................. 188
Unintended Innuendo ....................................................................................................................... 190
Disobeying Rules of Discourse......................................................................................................... 192
Not Sticking to the Issue and Not Treating It Fairly ..................................................................... 193
Not Accepting the Burden of Proof ............................................................................................. 193
Diverting Attention from the Issue ............................................................................................. 195
Giving Too Many Details .................................................................................................................. 201
Re-defining the Issue ......................................................................................................................... 202
Covering Up the Reasons That Favor Your Opponent ................................................................ 204
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 205
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 206
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 207
C H A P T E R6 Writing to Convince Others ................................................................................ 218
Writing with Precision and to Your Audience .............................................................................. 220
The Introduction............................................................................................................................. 221
The Middle ...................................................................................................................................... 223
The Ending ...................................................................................................................................... 224
Digressions ...................................................................................................................................... 225
Improving Your Writing Style ......................................................................................................... 226
Proving Your Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 228
Creating Counterarguments ............................................................................................................. 231
Review of Major Points ..................................................................................................................... 240
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 241
Exercises .......................................................................................................................................... 241
C H A P T E R7 Defending Against Deception ............................................................................. 247
Deception Is All Around Us ............................................................................................................. 247
Exaggeration and Lying .................................................................................................................... 249
Telling Only Half the Truth .............................................................................................................. 252
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