From the Aztecs' creation myth and its variations to the long northern trek of the Aztecs led by their tribal god Huitzilopochtli
By applying diverse approaches to study the Aztec gods light can be shed on differ I consider two types of Aztec rituals
A few cases are reported in which the Aztec emperor or soldiers were smeared with teotlaqualli. It is suggested that the black color of some Aztec deities as
THE RULES OF CONSTRUCTION OF AN AZTEC. DEITY: CHALCHIUHTLICUE THE GODDESS OF. WATER. Danièle Dehouve. Director of Research (emeritus)
The Aztec worshipped many gods including some known earlier to the. Maya. Key gods and religious figures included Tlaloc
The Aztecs worshipped many gods and goddesses. However the Aztecs praised the Sun god
The Aztec word for poetry was 'flower and song' and they Can you write an Aztec inspired poem to one of the Aztec gods? Which god would be worthy of a ...
Recent excavations of Temple R dedicated to the Aztec god of wind and rain
Because of his fundamental importance in Aztec religion Tezcatlipoca is commonly Aztec god who is said to be the principal one.
Aztec artworksand archaeology thus regained their visual power through the display of compellingimages of ancient gods and related cult
Aztec gods The Aztecs worshipped many gods and goddesses However, the Aztecs praised the Sun god, Huitzilpochtli, most of all for he told the Aztecs
However, the two cultures also shared seemingly irrational beliefs in returning gods The Aztecs believed that a deity would return from the east According to the
their various gods However, as this exhibition shows, the Aztecs were also extremely civilized and sophisticated They produced highly skilled and sensitive art,
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TheAztecEmpire
AGUIDETOTHEEXHIBITIONFORTEACHERS
TheAztecEmpireisorganizedbytheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumincollaborationwiththeConsejo N a c i o n a lparalaCulturaylasArtes ( CONACULTA)andtheInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria ( I N
AH)ofMexico.
M a j o rsponsorsofthisexhibitionare A d d i tionalsupportprovidedby T h
isexhibitionhasalsobeenmadepossibleinpartbyanindemnityfromtheFederalCouncilontheArtsandtheHumanities,together
w iththegeneroussupportoftheLeadershipCommitteeforTheAztecEmpire,GRUMA,ALFA,andConEdison. T ransportationassistanceprovidedby M e d iasupportprovidedbyThirteen/WNET S p e c ialthankstotheEmbassyofMexicointheU.S.,theEmbassyoftheUnitedStatesinMexico,andtheConsulateGeneralof M e xicoinNewYork. MAP T
IMELINE
USINGTHISGUIDE
INTRODUCTION
MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN,AXISMUNDIOFTHEUNIVERSE
T E M P
LOMAYOR
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GENDARYCULTURES-AZTECANCESTORS
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OPLESANDSOCIETIESOFTHEAZTECWORLD
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OBLELIFEANDEVERYDAYLIFE
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HETARASCANEMPIRE
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BIBLIOGRAPHYANDSUGGESTEDRESOURCES
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DITSANDACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TableofContents
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V E R A C R U Z Thisguide,whichaccompaniestheSolomonR.Guggenheimexhibition T h eAztecEmpire,isdesignedtoprovideideas,activities,andresources t h a texploreissuesraisedbythisexhibition.Theexhibitionandguide f o c u sonthevariedhistoricalandculturalinfluencesthathave c o n tributedtoAztecartanditsdevelopmentasculturallyrich,visually e n g a g ing,andemotionallycompelling. F o rAztecs,artwasamaterialmanifestationoftheirvisionoftheuniverse; i tssymbolswerethereflectionoftheirreligious,economic,politicaland s o c i a lconcepts.Theobjectsthattheycreatedweredesignedtobeused a n dintegratedintodailylife.Althoughvisitorscanappreciatethese w o rksfortheirbeauty,expressivequalities,andworkmanship,theyare f ragmentsdislocatedfromtheirpast. T h eAztecEmpireattheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseum,onview O c tober15,2004-February13,2005,representsthelargestsurveyof A ztecartevertohavebeenstagedoutsideMexico.Itbringstogether m o rethan430worksdrawnfrompublicandprivatecollections,including a rchaeologicalfindsofthelastdecadeneverbeforeseenoutside M e x ico.Organizedthematically,theexhibitionexploresallaspectsof A ztecreligious,social,andeconomiclifethroughthesheerdiversityand r a n geofartifactsondisplay:frommonumentalstonesculptureto m iniaturegoldobjects,andfromintricateturquoisemosaicstorare p ictorialmanuscripts(orcodices). T h isguideisnotintendedasacomprehensiveoverviewofAztecartor h istory;ratheritfocusesonanimportantworkselectedfromeachofthe m a jorthemesintheexhibition,andprovidessuggestionsfordiscussion q u e stionsandclassroomactivities(FurtherExplorations)intendedto e n c o u ragestudentstospeculateanddevelophypothesesbothabout A ztecsocietyandtheobjectstheyleftbehind.Itishopedthatstudents w illbeabletorelatemuchofthematerialtotheirownlives-citingboth
Usingthis
8 9 s i milaritiesanddifferences.Thebackoftheguideincludesvocabulary a n dphoneticspellingsforselectedAztecwords,aswellasalistof a d d itionalresources.Theguideisavailableinprintedformandon t h emuseum"sWebsiteatwww.guggenheim.org. T h edesignandcontentofthesematerialshaveathree-foldpurpose: •Toassisteducatorsindevelopingclassroomunitsfocusingon T h eAztecEmpire,andaspectsofPrecolumbianNorthAmerica •Toprovideeducatorswiththetoolstoconductaself-guided museumvisit •Toexpandupon,themesandideasimbeddedintheexhibition B yexaminingtheserepresentativeworks,aculturalcontextemerges t ohighlightthemodesofexpressionthatarethehallmarksofAztec c u lture.Althoughtheguideisdesignedtosupporttheexhibitionand w illbemostusefulinconjunctionwithatriptothemuseum,itisalso i n tendedtoserveasaresourcelongaftertheexhibitionhasclosed. B e forebringingaclasstothemuseum,teachersareinvitedtovisitthe e xhibition,readtheguide,anddecidewhichaspectsaremostrelevant f o rtheirstudents. T h eexhibitionhasbeenorganizedbytheSolomonR.GuggenheimMuseumincollaborationwiththeConsejo N a c i o n a lparalaCulturaylasArtes(CONACULTA)andtheInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria(INAH). G u e s tcuratorisFelipeSolís,DirectoroftheMuseoNacionaldeAntropologíainMexicoCity,co-curatorofthe l a r g e - s c a l esurveyAztecsattheRoyalAcademyinLondonin2003,andoneoftheworld"sforemostauthorities o nAztecartandculture.ExhibitiondesignisbyEnriqueNortenofTENArquitectos+J.MeejinYoon. 1 I ntroduction 1 0 T h eAztecswereamighty c ivilizationthatflourishedin C e n tralAmericabetween1325 a n d1521,whentheywereforced t osurrendertoaninvading S p a n isharmyledbyHernán C o rtés.Fromtheirmagnificent c a p ital,Tenochtitlan,they g o vernedavastempirethat s t retchedfrompresent-day M e x icotoGuatemala,andfromthe A tlantictothePacificoceans(see m a p ).Theyareoftenremembered a safierceandbloodthirstyrace, a g g ressiveinbattleandengaging i nhumansacrificetoappease t h e irvariousgods.However,as t h isexhibitionshows,theAztecs w e realsoextremelycivilizedand s o p h i sticated.Theyproduced h ighlyskilledandsensitiveart, c o n c e ivedperhapsthemost a d vancedcalendaroftheirtime, a n dbuiltextraordinarytemples i ncleanandwell-organizedcities. T h eAztecsorMexica(asthey c a lledthemselvesandarereferred t obyhistorians),migratedthrough M e x icoinsearchoflandtosettle. A c c ordingtothemyth,theAztecs" t riballeader,Huitzilopochtliforetoldthathispeopleshould settlewheretheysawaneagle o nacactuswithasnakeinits b e a k.Afteralongjourney,the
Aztecsarrivedatalake,called
LakeTetzcoco,inMexico"scentral
h i g h l a n dbasin.Inthemiddleof thelakewasanisland,andonthis i slandtheysawthestrangesight thatHuitzilopochtlihadpredicted.
Havingarrivedattheirpromised
l a n d ,theAztecsclaimedtheisland a n ditssurroundingfertileland, a n d ,in1325,foundedacitythey n a m e dTenochtitlan,"theplace o fthestonecactus."Theybuilt atempleinthecenterofthecity (latercalledtheTemploMayor, o rGreatTemple,bytheSpanish), w h i c htheydedicatedto
Huitzilopochtli,theirpatrongod.
Intime,Tenochtitlanwouldgrow
tobecomeabeautifuland p rosperouscityofabout250,000 i n h a b i tants,theheartofavast
Aztecempire.WhentheSpanish
a rrivedtoconquertheAztecsin
1519,theywereawestruckby
thegreatpyramidstoweringover thesacredcenter,thedazzling p a l a c e sandcolorfulmarketsWithsuchwonderfulsightstogazeonwedidnotknowwhattosay,orif t h iswasrealthatwesawbeforeoureyes. B e r n a lDiaz,a26-year-oldconquistador(Spanishconqueror), whofoughtinCortés"sarmy.TheConquestofNewSpain,1580s. sellingabewilderingvariety o ffoodandluxuries. F e a r lesswarriorsandpragmatic b u ilders,theAztecscreatedan e mpireduringthe15thcentury t h a twassurpassedinsizeinthe A mericasonlybythatoftheIncas i nPeru.Asearlytextsandmodern a rchaeologycontinuetoreveal, b e yondtheirconquests,there w e r emanypositiveachievements: •theformationofahighly s p e c i a lizedandstratifiedsociety a n danimperialadministration •theexpansionofatrading n e tworkaswellasatribute s y s tem •thedevelopmentand m a intenanceofasophisticated a g riculturaleconomy,carefully a d justedtotheecology •andthecreationofan i n tellectualandreligiousoutlook t h a theldsocietytobean i n tegralpartofthecosmos. T h eyearlyroundofritesand c e remoniesinthecitiesof T e n o c h titlanandneighboring T e tzcoco,andtheirsymbolicart a n darchitecture,gaveexpressiontoanawarenessofthe i n t e rdependenceofnature a n dhumanity. W h e ntheSpanishdefeated theAztecstheydestroyedmuch o fTenochtitlanandrebuiltitas M e xicoCity,thecapitalofmodern- d a yMexico.Thelegacyofthe A z tecsremains,however,inthe formofarchaeologicalruinssuch a stheTemploMayor,theheart o fAztecreligiousactivityand thesymboliccenteroftheempire. T o d a y"sMexicansareveryproud o ftheirAztecpastandcontinue torememberthetraditionsand p r a c ticetheartformsoftheir a n c e s tors.Morethantwomillion p e o p l estillspeaktheindigenous l a n g u a g eoftheAztecs,Nahuatl. H o w e ver,perhapsthemost p o i g n a n treminderoftheAztecs i stheMexicannationalflag,which featuresthelegendaryeagle, c a c tus,andsnakeemblemofthe l o n g - b u riedheartofthemighty A z tecempire,Tenochtitlan. 1 1
121Fragmentofan
a n t h r o p o m o r p h i cbrazier A z t e c , c a .1300 F i r e dclayandpigment, 1
8x22x9cmMuseo
U n i v e r s i t a r i odeCienciasy A r t e ,UNAM,MexicoCity 0 8 - 7 4 1 8 1 4 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 2 T h egreattempleknownas t h eTemploMayorofTenochtitlan s y mbolizestheaxismundi,the A zteccenteroftheworld,where t h esky,theearth,andthe u n d e rworldmet.Accordingto A ztecworldview,theuniverse c o n sistedofthreelayers.The m iddlelayerwastheearthlyone, i n h a b itedbyhumans.Abovethat w o r ld,theAztecsimagedthirteen l e v e lsorheavens,Omeyocan, t h e"placeofduality,"beingthe u p p e rmost.Belowtheearthly l a y e r,thereweretheninelevels o ftheunderworld.Thelowest o fthesewastherealmof M i c tlantecuhtli,theLordof t h eLandoftheDead. E a c hofthefourcardinaldirections r a d i a tedoutfromtheTemplo M a y o randwasassociatedwith adeity,abird,acolor,andaglyph. T h edualtempleroseaboveall o therbuildingsintheSacred P recinct.Thesouthernhalfwas d e d icatedtoHuitzilopochtli,solar a n dwargod,whilethenorthern h a lfwasdedicatedtoTlaloc,the g o dofrain,water,andtheearth"s f e r tility.TogetherTlalocandHuitzilopochtli,encompassthe n a turalandsocialuniverseof theAztecempire.WhileTlaloc w a sagodofearthandrain,
Huitzilopochtlistoodforthesun
a n dthesky.Tlalocmarkedthe timeofrains;Huitzilopochtli scorchedtheearth,withsun a n dwar,inthedrymonths.Tlaloc a n dHuitzilopochtlitogether representthecycleoflifeand fertility,andmarkthegeographic, ritual,andsymbolicheartofthe u n i verse,unitingoldandnew, c e n terandperiphery,inthesacred a rtificialmountainloomingover theAzteccapital. M exico-Tenochtitlan,AxisMundi 13
FRAGMENTOFAN
A
NTHROPOMORPHICBRAZIER
T h eAztecwereknownnotonly f o rtheirsculpture,butalsofor t h e irexpressiveandsensitive p o e try.Thesculptureandpoem b e lowprovideaglimpseinto w a y sthatthecyclesoflifewere p o rtrayed.Lookcarefullyatthe s c u l p ture.Thethreefaces r e p resentthecycleoflife.Inthe m iddlewecanseethefaceofa y o u n gman,withallhisteethand w e a r inganornamentbetween t h enoseandupperlip.Oneither s i d earetwohalvesoftheface o fanold,toothlessman;these t wofacesareframedbythe s y mmetricallydividedfaceof acorpsewithitseyesclosed. T h ethirteendecorativerings(four o ntheyoungman"shead,nineon t h ecorpse"s)representtheparts o facalendarcycle.Nezahualcoyotl,thepoet-kingof T e xcocowrites:
I,Nezahualcoyotl,askthis:
Isittrueonereallyliveson
theearth? N o tforeveronearth,onlyalittle w h i l ehere. T h o u g hitbejadeitfallsapart, thoughitbegolditwearsaway, N o tforeveronearth,onlyalittle w h i l ehere. M i c h a e lD.Coe,Mexico:From theOlmecstotheAztecs, (NewYork:ThamesandHudson, 2
002),fifthedition,p.223.
1 4
DiscussionQuestions
•Afterreadingthepoem,describe itsmeaninginyourownwords. •Whatsimilaritiescanyoufind inthepoemandthesculpture. W h a tdifferences?FurtherExplorations •TheartistwhomadetheMask w i thThreeFaceschoseto representthelifecycleinthree stages.Howwouldyouchoose toportraythecycleoflife? W h a tphasesoflifewouldyou i n c l u d e ?Why? 1 5 154
E a g l ewarrior A z t e c , c a .1440-69 F i r e dclay,stucco,andpaint, 1 7
0x118x55cm
M u s e odelTemploMayor, I N A H ,MexicoCity10-220366 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 3 T h i spartoftheexhibitionis d e v o tedtothewealthof e x traordinaryartifactsexcavated f romthemostsignificantreligious b u i ldinginTenochtitlan,thegreat T e m p loMayor.WhentheAztecs f o u n d e dtheircapital,theybuilt atemple.Between1325and1521, e a c hAztecruleraddedanew o u t e rmostlayertothetempleout o frespecttothegodsandto e n s u r ethathisreignwouldbe i mmortalizedwithinthegreatstone s tructure.Thisimposingstructure l a yattheritualheartofthecity. I twasherethatpublicrituals, i n c ludinghumansacrifice,took p l a c e .Likemostbuildingsofthe t ime,theTemploMayorwas c o v e r e dinstucco,atypeof p l a ster,andpainted.Large s c u lpturesfurtherdecorated t h ebuilding. R e c o g n i zingitsimportancetothe A ztecpeople,aftertheconquest t h eSpanishquicklydismantledthe T e m p loMayor,andreusedsomeof t h estoneintheirconstructionof acathedral,whichstilloccupies o n esideofMexicoCity"smain s q u a r e(orzócalo)today.Theyalsorecordedtheiraweupon s e e i n gthisamazingbuilding.
In1978workerscarryingout
r o u tinemaintenancework o nelectric-lightingequipment u n c o veredalargecircular s c u l p turethatwasidentifiedby a rchaeologistsasarepresentation o fthedismemberedbodyof C o yolxauhqui,goddessofthe moon.Thisfindledtotheeventual u n e a rthingoftheTemploMayor"s long-buriedfoundations.During theexcavation,itwasdiscovered thattheprecedingversionsofthe p yramidcomplexhadbeen p reservedintactwitheach s u b sequentruler"srebuilding, a n dsoarchaeologistswereable toidentifysevendifferentlayers, p e e l i n geachawaylikeanonion s kin.Over100sacrificialdeposits o rofferingscontainingmorethan 6 ,
000objectshavebeen
d i scoveredbuiltintothestructure. 17
TemploMayoranditsSymbolism
18 T h eexcavationsoftheTemplo M a yoralsoyieldedobjectsfrom o l d e rMesoamericanculturesthat t h eAztecshadheldinhighregard. T h eexhaustiverangeofofferings s u g g e s tsthattheAztecscreated t h eTemploMayorasamodelof e v e rythingthatcouldbefoundin t h euniverse,bothpastand p r e sent.Theorganizationofthe f o u r-sidedtemplestructureisalso t h o u g h ttoreflecttheAztec w o rldview,inwhichtheearthis u n d e r s toodtobeadisk, s u rroundedbywateranddivided i n tofourquarters.EAGLEWARRIOR T h emostprestigiousmilitary s o c i e tiesororderswerethose o ftheeagleandthejaguar. T h e sewarriorsworeeithereagle o rjaguarcostumes.Thislife-size s c u l p turerepresentsaneagle warrior.Itisoneofapairthatwas foundflankingadoorwaytothe c h a m b e rwheretheeaglewarriors met,nexttotheTempleMayor. T h eeaglewasthesymbolofthe s u n ,towhomallsacrificeswere o ffered.Thisisoneofthefinest e xamplesoflarge,hollowceramic s c u l p tureseverfoundintheValley o fMexico.
DiscussionQuestions
•Theeagleisoneofthegreatest p r e d a torsintheskies.Tothe A ztecitrepresentedthestrength a n dbraveryessentialtoa w a rrior.Whatcharacteristics d oyouassociatewitheagles? •Howdoyouimaginethejaguar w a rriorcostumeslooked?What c h a r a c teristicswouldajaguar w a rriorpossess?FurtherExplorations •Chooseanotheranimaland d e s i g nacostumethatutilizes i t scharacteristics.Whattraits w o u l dthiscostumelendto i t swearer? 19 86
M a s k T e o t i h u a c a n , c a .450, S t o n e ,turquoise,obsidian, a n dshell, 2 1 .
5x20cm
M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity. P h o t o :MichelZabé 4 T h eAztecswerenotthefirst p e o p letosettleinMexico. F o r2,500yearsbeforetheirarrival, t h eareahadbeenhometomany c ivilizations,includingtheOlmecs, T o l tecs,andthepeopleof T e o tihuacan.TheAztecswere t h elastofthesegreatculturesto s e t tlethere,and,asaresult,were h e a vilyinfluencedbythealready e stablishedgroups.Inorderto i n tegratethemselvesintothearea, t h e yadoptedthenativelanguage, N a h u a tl,andcopiedartisticstyles a n dtechniquesfromother M e s o a mericancultures. ( M e soamericaisthetermusedto d e scribethecentralregionofthe A mericasinhabitedbynative c ivilizationsbeforethearrivalof t h eSpanish.)ThewarlikeAztecs a lsoformedallianceswithnearby c o mmunitiestoconsolidatetheir m ilitarystrengthandexpand t h e irempire. P e rhapsthetwogreatest i n fluencesonAztecartandculture c a mefromtheancientcitiesof T e o tihuacanandTula.Beforeits d e c lineinA.D.700,Teotihuacan h a dbeenawondrouscityofabout200,000people,withextensive templecomplexesandspecialized c r a ftdistricts.Historically,itwas asiteofvitalimportancetothe A z tecs,whorevereditasthe C i t yoftheGods("Teotihuacan"). T h e yalsoincorporatedanumber o fTeotihuacanogodsintotheir p a n theon(familyofgods), i n c l u d i n gTlaloc,theraingod,and C h a l c h i u h t l i c u e("sheofthejade s kirt"),thegoddessoflakesand s treams.Aprincipaldeity,the r u l e r-priestknownasQuetzalcoatl ("featheredserpent"),was a d o p tedfromtheToltecs. T u l a("placeofreeds")and h o m etotheToltecs,thrivedafew h u n d r e dyearsafterTeotihuacan, a n dleftasimilarlyinfluential l e g a c ytolaterMesoamerican c u l t u res.TheAztecsbelieved theToltecswerethefounders o fcivilizationandcreditedthem w i t htheinventionofpaintingand s c u l p ture.Azteccraftsmenheld aprivilegedpositioninsociety, w o r kingforthenobility.Although theywereextremelyimportant, a r tistsneversignedtheirwork, w h i c hwasconsideredcollective. 2 1
LegendaryCultures-AztecAncestors
TheAztecstooktheirinspiration
f romTeotihuacan,Tula,Mixtec, O lmec,andotherancient M e s oamericancultures,adopting e verythingfromstone-cutting t e c h n iquestocalendarsystems. T h ediscoveryofobjectsfrom o therMesoamericancultures d u ringtheexcavationofthe T e m ploMayorsuggeststhat,Aztec r u lersbroughtartistsfromother a reas,includinggoldsmithsfrom t h eMixteca(nearpresent-day O a xaca),toworkinTenochtitlan. O vertimetheywoulddevelop t h e irownoriginalstyleand i c o n o g r a p h y,whichsprangfrom auniquelyAztecperspectiveon w a rfare,religionandcosmology.MASK T h i sburialmaskisfrom T e o tihuacan,adistinctive c i vilizationthatreacheditspeak a roundthesixthcentury,five h u n d redyearsbeforetheAztecs m i g ratedfromnorthwestern
Mexico.Theskilledcraftsmanship
a n dtheexquisitemosaic p a tterningwouldhavebeen g reatlyadmiredbytheAztecs, a sitisbypeopletoday.Thismask i sacknowledgedasoneofthe g reattreasuresofPre-Hispanic a rtinMesoamerica.Maskswere c o m m o n l yplacedovermummy b u n d l e stoprotectthedeceased fromthedangersoftheafterlife.
Madeofstone,itssurfaceis
c o veredinbitsofturquoise, o b sidian,andshell. 2 2 23
D iscussionQuestions •Expertshavedetermined t h a tthismaskwasprobably n o tmeanttobewornbya l ivingperson,butwasattached t oafunerarybundle.What a ttributesofthismaskleadto t h a tconclusion? •InAztecsocietycraftsmen p a ssedtheirskillsonto t h e irsons,whotookuptheir t r a d euponreachingmanhood. W h a ttoolsandskillsand m a terialswouldhavebeen r e q u i redtomakethismask? I ncontemporarysocietywhat s k illsarepassedfromparent t ochild? •Forhundredsofyears,masks m a d efrommanydifferent m a terials,havebeenfashioned b ypeopleintheAmericas. P recolumbianpeoplewereknown t ouseclay,gold,stone,obsidian, w o o d ,bone,shell,turquoise,jade, h a ir,cloth,emerald,alabaster, c o ral,greenstone,diorite,onyx, a n dleatherformasks. W h e rewouldtheyhavefound e a c hofthesematerials?•Thetechniqueofmosaichas b e e nusedfordecorationin manyculturesandcontinues tobepopulartoday.Wherehave y o useenthemosaictechnique? F u rtherExplorations •Mosaicscanbeexecuted inawiderangeofmaterials frompapertomarble.Some r e a d i l yavailableandinexpensive c h o i c e sincludeseeds,pebbles, s m a l lshells,buttonsandbeads. T h e rearemanyexcellentbooks thatprovidestep-by-step instructionsonthedesignand e xecutionofthisdecorative a rtform. 80
F l e a A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e ,22x21.5x36.5cm M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH M e x i c oCity, 1 0 - 5 9 4 0 3 9 5 T h egreatvarietyofsculpted a n imalforms,fromminusculefleas t olargecoiledserpents,highlight t h eimportanceofthenatural w o r ldinbothdailylifeand,more p rofoundly,inAztecreligiousand c o smologicalbeliefs.TheAztecs c reatedcarefullyobserved s c u l p turesofdomesticated a n imalssuchasturkeysanddogs, a swellaswildcoyotes,snakes, a n djaguars.Theintensityoftheir o b servationsandtheirabilityto c reatenaturalisticformsare e xemplifiedbythestonesculpture o faninsectthoughttobeaflea. T h eAztecartisthasmagnified t h istinycreaturemanyhundreds o ftimes,sothatfeaturesbarely v i sibletothenakedeyeare f u llydiscernible. T h eAztecsexplainedthe d istinguishingfeaturesandroles o fdifferentanimalsthrough e laborateandoftenentertaining m y ths.Onesuchstorytellshow, w h e nthemoonwasborn,itwas s obrightthatoneofthegods t h r e warabbitatitsfacetodullits g low.Thisiswhy,fortheAztecs, afullmoonappearstocontainthe s i lhouetteofarabbit.Therearemanyexamplesin
Aztecartinwhichgodssuch
a sQuetzalcoatl,the"feathered serpent,"takeahybridform,inhis c a seasnake-bird,combiningthe featuresorqualitiesoftwoanimals toemphasizeaspectsofthedeity"s m ythicalorsupernaturalpowers.
AGRICULTURE
Inadditiontotheanimalsthatthey
c o e xistedwith,theAztecswere a l soreliantontheplantworldto p rovidefoodforsustenanceand fibersfromwhichtoweavecloth, b a skets,andmats.AsAztec societywaslargelyagricultural,it w a sreliantontheweather,which w a ssometimesunpredictableor h a rsh.WhentheAztecsfirst settledaroundLakeTetzcoco, farmlandwasrelativelyscarce a n dsotheycreatedfloatingfields c a l l e dchinampas,whichwere a rrangedinagridpatternwith c a n a l sbetweeneachblock.
Heretheycultivatedpumpkins,
a vocados,andtomatoes(fromthe N a h u a tlaguacatl,tomatl),sweet p o tatoes,chillies,andbeans,as w e l lascorn,whichtheyusedto M exicanBestiary 2 5 26
m a k epancakesknownastortillas. T h emarket-abustling,vibrant, a n dnoisyplacecentraltoAztec d a ilylife-waswherefarmers, t raders,andcraftsmencameto e xchangetheirproduce.One S p a n ishconquistadorlater c o mmented:"Wewereastounded a tthenumberofpeopleand t h equantityofmerchandiseit c o n tained"(BernalDíaz,The C o n q u e stofNewSpain,1580s). V a l u a b leitemssuchasgolddust, q u e tzalfeathers,andcacaobeans w e reusedtobarterforgoodsof e q u a lvalue:turkeys,quail,rabbits, a n ddeer;ducksandotherwater b irds;maguey(cactus)syrup,and h o n e y.Cacaobeanswerealso u sedbytheAztecstomakea s p e c i a lchocolatedrink,which o n lynoblescouldafford.Until t h earrivaloftheSpanishin1519, c h o c o latewasunknownbeyond t h eAmericas.DiscussionQuestions •Asaclass,generatealistof thingsyouknowaboutfleas. L o o kcarefullyatthesculpture. W h a totherinformationabout fleascanyoulearnfromcareful o b servation? •Whymightsomeonefocuson s o m e thingastinyasafleaand c reateasculptureofitmagnified h u n d redsoftimes?Whymight thisthemehavebeenimportant toAztecartists?Whatanimals a reimportantincontemporary s o c i e ty?Whatartifactsmight laterexplorersfindfromthe21st c e n turythatincludereferences toanimals? 27
F u r therExplorations •Thissculptedflea,ona m o n u mentalscale,reflectsthe s k illofAztecstonecarversand t h e irabilitytocaptureminute d e tailsofinsectanatomyusing o n lystonetools.Bothartists a n dscientistslearnaboutthe n a turalworldthroughclose o b servation.Selectasmall, c o mplexnaturalobject.Adead i n s e c tisbestforthisexercise, b u tasmallflowerorseedcan a lsoserveasamodel.Closely o b serveyoursubject,usinga m a g n ifyingglassifyouhave o n e .Thenmakeadetailed d rawingonapieceofpaperthat i satleast9x12inches(largeris b e tter).Yourdrawingshouldfill t h eentirepage.Onceyouare d o n e ,makealistofthethings y o ulearnedaboutyoursubject b ydrawingit.•Studentscanexperiencethe p r o c e ssofcarvingbyusing asoftmateriallikeabarofsoap o rapotato.Abutterknife,plastic o rwoodenclaytools,and toothpickscanbeusedas i m p l e m e n t s .Choosesimpleforms s u c hasvegetablesandfruitsto m o d e l .TheAztecscreated e x c e l l e n texamplesintheform o fpumpkins,squashes,andcacti c a r vedfromstone.Thisproject i sbestdoneoutdoorsunder a d u l tsupervision. •Aztecgodssuchas Q u e tzalcoatl,the"feathered s e rpent,"frequentlytakea h y b ridform,inhiscaseasnake- b i r d ,combiningthefeaturesor q u a l i t i e softwoanimalsto e m p h a sizeaspectsofthedeity"s m ythicalorsupernatural p o w e r s.Whattwoanimals w o u l dyoucombinetocreate asupernaturalbeing?Sketch y o u rcreationandwritea d e s c riptionofthequalitiesthat thisnewcreaturewouldpossess. 6 B yexaminingAztecsculptures d e p ictingthehumanform,we s e eavividandimmediately r e c o g n i zableportraitofdailylife i nathrivingmetropolis.Instone a n dclaysculptorshavedepicted a nurbanepeopleinanascendant s o c i e tyinavarietyofposes: s t a n d ing,seated,kneeling, c rouching,orwearingan e laborateheaddress.Someare s t ylizedsuchasfertilityfiguresor f iguresofwarriors;otherlikethe s t o n esculptureofahunchback ( c a .1500)aremorenaturalistic, s a v o r ingtheparticular. A ztecartistsrarely,ifever, c reatedrealisticportraitsof i n d ividuals,insteadtheyrelied o nastandardrepertoireoffigure t y p e sandposes:seatedmale f igure,kneelingwoman,standing n u d e .Sincetheprimaryfunction o fAztecartwastoconvey m e a n ing,theimagerywas c o n ventionalized.Standardized t y p e sofhumanfigures r e p r e s e n tedrulers,warriors, p riests,andakindofeverymanfor c o mmonerfigures.Deitieswere i d e n tifiedbytheirdressandotheraccoutrements.BecauseAztec sculpturewasstandardized,itis sometimesinterpretedasbeing rigid,expressionless,stylized, c o n formingtoasetartistic formulaandestablished"rules" o frepresentation.
Atthesametime,theAztecshad
a nextensiveandhighlyscientific u n d e rstandingofthehumanbody, a n dsomeAztecsculpturesare verynaturalistic,displaying w rinkledforeheads,hunched b a c ks,andgap-toothedgrimaces a sevidencethatAztecartists c a refullyobservedtheirsubjects.
Aztecartistsdidrepresentthe
h u m a nforminawidevarietyof m e d i aandinasurprisingrange o fstyles.Amongthemostcommon representationsinthisexhibition a rethree-dimensionalsculptures o fthehumanforminstoneand c l a y .Thesesculpturesintheround representcommoners,warriors, g o d s,andgoddesses.
PeoplesandSocietiesoftheAztecWorld
2 9 1 3 H u n c h b a c k A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e ,33x17x12cm M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-97 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías
FortheAztecs,thehumanbody
a n dspiritwereintimatelylinked t othenaturalandsupernatural w o rldaroundthem,sothestate o ftheirownbeingcouldhave adirectimpactontheir s u r roundings.Theaim,inall a spectsofAzteclife,wasto m a intainnaturalharmony.
Abalancedbodyandlifeultimately
l e dtoabalancedsocietyand u n iverse.Thereforemoderation w a sadvisedineverythingand e xcessesavoidedforfearof u p settingthecosmicequilibrium.HUNCHBACK T h i soldstonehunchbackwithhis b o n yribcageandshortlimbsisa p a rticularlygoodexampleofthe h o n e standoftenhumorousrealism forwhichAztecartistsaretoday a d m i red.Hewearsaloinclothand sportsthehairstylecharacteristic o fwarriors,withalockofhairtied w i thcottontasselsontheright sideofhishead. 3 0
DiscussionQuestions
•Whatismeantbythewords s tylizedandnaturalistic?Are thereaspectsofthisworkthat s e e mstylized?Whatarethey? W h ichaspectsseemmore n a turalistic?Explain. •Comparethishumanfigurewith s c u lpturalimagesofAztecgods includedinthisguide.Howdo theydiffer?Whataresome r e a sonsthattheymightbeso d ifferentinappearance?FurtherExplorations •Lookthroughamagazineor n e w spaperandfindexamples o fbothnaturalisticandstylized i m a g e s .Discusswhatattributes y o uconsideredinputtingthem ineachcategory. •Chooseasinglesubject.Itcan b eaperson,butitcanalsobe a n yothernaturalform,aflower, fruit,leaf,oranimal.Createtwo w o r ksbasedonthissubject, o n estylizedandtheother n a turalistic.Theworkcanbe three-dimensionaloritcanbe adrawing.Whichapproachdid y o uprefer?Why? 3 1 401
P e n d e n tintheshapeof awarrior A z t e c , a f t e r1325 C a s tgold-silver-copperalloy, 1 1 .
2x6.1cm
T h eClevelandMuseumofArt, L e o n a r dC.Hanna,Jr.Fund 1 9 8 4 . 3 7 P h o t o©TheCleveland M u s e u mofArt 7 L i kemanycivilizations,Aztec s o c i e tywashierarchicaland aperson"ssocialposition,and t h e r e foreone"swayoflife,was l a r g e lydeterminedbybirthright. C o mmonersworkedasfarmers, f ishermen,orcraftsmen.Noblemen s e r v e dasgovernmentofficials, s c r ibes,andteachers.Although t h eclassstructurewasreasonably r i g id,somesocialmobilitywas p o ssiblethroughentryintothe p riesthood,achievementin w a r fare,orsuccessintrade.The A ztecruler,however,hadtohave b e e nbornintotherightfamily. A stheonlyfigureallowedtowear t h epreciouscolorturquoise,he l ivedinasumptuouspalacewith s p e c t a c u l a rgardens,abanqueting h a ll,alargezoo,andgoldcutlery. A ttendedbyanabundanceof b o d yguardsandbeautifulwomen ( whohadtoapproachhimwith d o wncasteyesandbarefeet),the r u l e rpossessedanalmostgodlike s t a tus.Theruleratthetimeofthe S p a n ishinvasionwastheninth A ztecemperor,MotecuhzomaII, w h ocouldtracehisancestryback t othefirstruler,Acamapichtli. T omaintainhisluxuriouslifestyle,thegreatMotecuhzomademanded o n e -thirdofeverythinghispeople p roducedintaxes.Healso d e m a n d e dregularpayments, knownastribute,fromthesubjects o fconqueredprovinces.
Attheoppositeendofthesocial
h i e rarchywerepeasantfarmers, l a n d l e sscommoners,andslaves. T h e yhadfewrightsorluxuries a n dspenttheirlivesgrowingcrops forfoodandtribute.Aprivileged u p p e rclasswasformedbynobles a n dpriests,bothofwhomplayed a nimportantroleingovernment a n dlawmaking.Thehigherclasses w e redistinguishedbytheirfine d e c o ratedtextilesandsandals, w h i c hwereimportantsymbols o frank.Theylivedinpalatial c o m p l e xesandenjoyedobjectsof thefinestquality.Onlynobleswere a l l o w e dtowearclothesmadeof c o tton,andtheyfrequentlyadorned themselveswithintricate o rnaments-pendants,lipplugs, a n dearspools.Commonerswore c l o theswovenfromthemuch c o a rserfiberofthemagueyplant.
Belowthenobleswerethe
m e rchantsandskilledcraftsmen.
NobleLifeandEveryday
Life 33
Itwastothismiddleclassthat
p rofessionalwarriorsbelonged.
Youngboyswouldbeeducatedat
h o mebytheirparentsuntiltheage o f15,atwhichpointtheywould e itherbetrainedinwarfareorsent forpriestlyinstructioninwriting, p h ilosophy,andastronomy.(Girls wereeducatedathomeuntil15as well,butthenmarried.)Although a lreadyrespectedmembersof s o c iety,warriorscouldimprove theirrankbycapturinganever- g reaternumberofvictims,and wererewardedwithincreasingly impressivecostumesandprecious tributeitems. A lthoughwetendtothinkofgold a sthemostpreciousofmaterials, a sdidtheSpanishconquistadors, theAztecsdidnot.Theyworked thegoldintoexquisitepiecesof jewelry,butreferredtoitasthe e x c rementofthegods.Perhaps s u rprisinglytous,themost v e n e ratedmaterialwasfeathers. B rightlycoloredplumeswere g a thered,oftenfromfarmedbirds, a n dsenttoTenochtitlanastax p a y mentortribute.Theywere fashionedintoobjectsofgreatbeauty,suchasfans,shields,and h e a d d resses.Featherworkswere i n signiaofwealthandpower,and a nimportantelementoftheritual o u tfitofwarriors.Mosaicsmade o fshell,turquoise,andother stoneswerealsohighlyprized. 3 4 35
D iscussionQuestions •Thisfigurerepresentsawarrior whoholdsaserpent-headed s p e a r-throwerinonehandand ashield,darts,andbannerin theother.Expertsbelievethat h erepresentssomeoneofelite s tatus.Howcanyoutellthatthis warriorispartofarespected g r o u pwithinhissociety? •Stonefigures,claypots,and jadeornamentsaresomeof theobjectsthatpreserveour k n o wledgeofAzteccivilization. W h a tobjectsorimageswould y o uselecttorepresentlife today?Whydotheseobjects s e rveasavalidrepresentation o fcontemporarysociety? •Althoughonlynobleshad o b jectsmadefromprecious metalsandstones,allAztec h o meshadsmallshrinestothe g o d sthatmighthelptoprotect thefamily.Doyouhavereligious o b jectsinyourhome?Describe whattheyare,wheretheyare p laced,andhowtheyareused.FurtherExplorations •WithinAztecsocietyaperson"s statusandsocialclasswere c l e a rlydelineated.Lookthrough m a g a z i n esandnewspapersfor i n d i c a tionsofhowpeoplefrom variouslevelsofcontemporary societyaredepicted.Cutout yourexamplesandhaveaclass d i scussionaboutcurrent i n d i c a torsofstatus.Whatare c o n temporary"statussymbols"? •Readoverthesectionabove a n dwriteaparallelessay a b o u tsocialclassandstatus i ncontemporarysociety. 311
D e a dwarriorbrazier A z t e c ,ca.1500 F i r e dclayandpaint, 9
1x76x57.5cm
M u s e oNacionaldel V i r r e i n a t o ,INAH, T e p o t z o t l á n10-133646 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 8 T h eAztecshadhundredsof d ifferentgodsandgoddesses- o n eforeveryaspectoftheirlives. T h evariousdeitieswerebelieved t oexertimmensepowerand i n fluenceovereverythingpeople d idand,asaresult,were w o r shippeddevoutlybyalllevels o fsociety,bothatdomesticshrines a n dalsoinelaboratepublicrituals. T h e seceremonies,ledbypriests w h ooften"became"godsduring t h eceremony,werehighly t h e a tricalanddramaticaffairs, i n tegratingfestivedancingin f a n tasticcostumeswithbloody h u mansacrifice,whichwas t h o u g h ttobenecessaryto c o n tinueandkeepinbalance t h ecycleoflifeanddeath. U n d e r lyingAztecreligiousbeliefs w a stheLegendoftheSuns,the e xplanationoftheoriginofthe u n iverse.Accordingtolegend,the u n iversehadbeencreatedand d e stroyedfourprevioustimes,and e a c hcreationformedanagecalled a"sun."Thefifthepochbeganin d a rkness.Thegodsgatheredat T e o tihuacan,andtwoofthem s a c r ificedthemselvesbyjumpingintoafireandrisingasthesunand themoon.Theremaininggodsthen s a c rificedthemselves,theirblood s e ttingthesunandmooninmotion. F romthenon,thedailymovement o fthesun,andthereforethe c o n tinuationoflifeitself,depended o nthenourishmentofthegods w i t hhumanblood. A l thoughAztecdeitiescanbe b r o a d l ydividedintomaleand female,thoseoflifeanddeath,and thoseofcreationanddestruction, theywerefarmorecomplexthan b e i n geitherpurelygoodorevil. M a n yweredualinnature, i n c o r p o ratingaparticularquality, g e n d e rorrole,withitsopposite. T h i sduality(doublenature) r e flectedoneofthedominant p r i n c i p l e sofAztecreligionand thought:thatthecosmoswas o r g a n i z e dintobinaryopposites, s u c hasnightandday,fireand w a t e r,coldandheat.
Inmanyways,Aztecgodsand
g o d d e s seswerejustlikeordinary m e nandwomen.Theyeachhad theirownpersonalityandwell- d e finedrole.Humansimpersonated G odsandRituals 3 7 thegodsatreligiousceremonies, b e c o mingthemforthattime. B e c ausethegodscouldtransform t h e mselvesintoearthlyforms, a lmosteverythingwasconsidered d ivine,fromthelowliestinsectto t h elargestmountain.Amongthe A ztecgodsandgoddesseswas asupremedeitycalledOmeteotl ( " twogod"),who,asbothfemale a n dmale,wastheembodimentof t h eAztecideaofdualityandwas r e s p onsibleforcreatingboth h u mansandgods. T h eAztecshadnoconceptof h e a venandhellasplacesof r e wardandpunishment.Instead, t h e yenvisionedthecosmosas d ividedintolayers,bothaboveand b e lowtheearth,eachofwhich r e c e i vedpeoplewhohaddieda p a rticulardeath.Ifyouhaddied b ydrowningorbeenstruckby l ightning,forexample,youended u ponthecelestial(heavenly) p lanegovernedbyTlaloc,therain g o d .Theninelevelsbeneaththe e a rth,collectivelyknownas M ictlan(theunderworld),were l e s swelcomingandwerewhere t h emajorityofAztecswentwhentheydied.Althoughitwasn"tquite a sgrimastheChristianconcept o fhell,thepeoplebanishedhere h a dtobravesuchhazardsas c l a shingmountainsandflying k n i vesmadefromobsidian,ablack v o l c a n i cglassthatissohardand s h a rpthattheAztecsuseditto m a keswords.
InAztecart,deitiescanbe
i d e n t i fiedthroughastandardset o faccoutrements,includingdress, h e a d w e a r ,facemarkings,jewelry, o rornamentation,andother a c c e s soriessuchasweapons. T e z c a t l i p o c a ,forexample,an a n c i e n tMexicansorcererand thegodofnightanddestiny,is g e n e r a l l ydepictedwithablack b a n dacrosshisnoseandface a n dawitheredfootthatendsin amirrormadeofobsidian. T e z c a t l i p o c a " snameactually m e a n s"smokingmirror"and i twassaidthat,withthis i n strument,hecouldseeand c o n trolwhatwashappening throughouttheuniverse. 3 8 39
D E
IFIEDWARRIORBRAZIER
T h isceremonialbrazier,or f irepot,wasdiscoveredduring t h econstructionoftheMetro i nMexicoCity,nearwherethe T e mploMayorhadpreviously s t o o d .Itdepictsthefiercely e xpressiveformofawarrior c rossingthethresholdofdeath, e itherkilledinbattleorsacrificed t othegods.Suchadeathwas h o n o rableandthesoulsofdead w a r riorswenttotheirown c e lestialplane,wheretheywere t h o u g h ttoaccompanythesunon i tsdailypathacrossthesky.The f igurewearsanenormouseagle h e lmetwithanopenbeak, i d e n tifiedwitheaglewarriors,one o fthemostdistinguishedmilitary o rdersthatcouldbeawardedtoa b raveAztecfighter.Theblack,red, a n dyellowdecorationandfacial p a intidentifyhimasapatronof y o u t h fulenergyandmilitary v i c tory,whilethe"haloofnine f e a thers"aroundtheupperpartof h isfaceevokestheplanesofthe u n d erworld.LikemanyotherAztec s c u l p tures(andmanybuildings), t h isbrazierwouldhavebeenlit d u ringreligiousceremonies.DiscussionQuestions •Whichcharacteristicsofthis sculptureseemwarrior-like?
Howwouldyoudepictabrave
w a rriorwhohadbeenkilledin abattle? •Comparethisfigurewiththe o thereaglewarriorpictured i nthisguide.Inwhatwaysdo p e o p l etodayhonorthememory o fthosewhohavebeenkilled i nwar?
FurtherExplorations
•Theexhibitioncontainsmany e xamplesofvesselsdecorated w i thimagesofgodsandpeople. W i thself-hardeningclaycreate avesseladornedwitha p e rsonage.Whendry,paintcan b eapplied.Rememberthatself- h a rdeningclaycanneverbe u sedasacontainerforfood. 335
X i u h m o l p i l l i(1Death) A z t e c , c a .1500 S t o n e , l .61cm,diam.26cm, M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-220917 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 9 A ztecsweregreatlyconcerned w iththepassageoftimeand d e visedsophisticatedcalendars a n delaboratecountingsystems t h a tregulatedtheirreligious, e c o n o mic,political,andsocial l ives.Twointerrelatedcalendars w e r eusedtomeasuretime. T h e365-daysolaroryearly c a lendarwascloselylinkedto t h eseasonsandtoagricultural a c tivitiessuchasharvesting. I twasmadeupof18"months"of 2
0days(360).Theremainingfive
d a ysweretackedontotheendof e a c hyearandconsideredvery u n lucky.Each'month"was d e d icatedtoaparticulardeity a n dwasdistinguishedbya d ifferentfeast.Althoughitalso r e g u l a tedhumanactivities,the 2 6 0 -dayritualcalendarwasmore r e l igiousinnature,particularly c o n c e rnedwithfateanddestiny. T h iscalendarconsistedoftwo w h e e ls,orrounds.Oneroundhad 1
3numberedpositions.Theother
h a d20positions,eachwitha n a medsign,suchasrabbit,house, o rcrocodile.Theinterlocking o fthesetworoundsproduced anumber-nameforeachday,suchas"1Rabbi,""2Water,"or "3Jaguar,"eachofwhichwas a ssociatedwithadifferentfate.
Aztecpeoplewerenamedafterthe
d a yoftheritualcalendaronwhich theywereborn.Itwasthoughtthat thefateofthisdaywouldaffect theirpersonaldestiny. W h e nthevariousnumbers a n dsignsofthesetwodifferent c a l e n d a rswereintegrated, theyproducedacombination thatwouldoccuronceevery
52yearsandmightbeconsidered
e q u i valenttoourcentury.Thiswas atimeofterrifyinguncertaintyfor theAztecs.Itwasmarkedwith aNewFireCeremony.Allfires w e reextinguishedandhousehold p o tssmashed,readyforrenewal. P riestswaitedontheoutskirts o fTenochtitlan.Atmidnightthey l i tanewfireinthechestcavity o facaptivewarrior,anditsflame w a sdistributedtotemplesand e ventuallytohouseholds.This c e remonyepitomizedtheconcept thatoutofhumansacrificecame l i fe,asacredaspectoftheduality o fdeathandrebirth. M a nuscriptsandCalendars 41
42
X
IUHMOLPILLI
T h exiuhmolpilli,meaning"year b u n d le,"isastonemonument c reatedtocommemorateaNew F i reCeremony.Asitsname s u g g e s ts,itrepresentsabundle o f52reeds,tiedwithropeand c o veredwithasymbolofthefinal y e a r .Duringtheceremony,52of t h e s ebundleswereburned. T h eAztecsbelievedthattheworld h a dalreadybeencreatedand d e stroyedfourtimesbefore,and t h a ttheirFifthWorldwasalso d o o med.Itwasthoughtthatthis r itualofrenewalwouldpreventthe d e structionoftheworldafifth t ime.ThelastNewFireCeremony b e forethearrivaloftheSpanish t o o kplacein1507.DiscussionQuestions •Whenthemillenniumyear2000 wasapproaching,therewere s p e c u l a tionsaboutpossible c a tastrophes,aswellasmajor c e l e b rations.Researchboth a spectsofthecommemoration o ftherecentmillennium.How d i dcontemporaryobservances p a rallelordifferfromAztec traditions? •Inmanywaysthedescription o fAztecbeliefsaboutthefate o fpeoplebeingdetermined b ythecalendarseemssimilar toastrology.Doyoubelieve thatthemonth,day,andtime whenapersonisbornaffects theirfate?Doyouthinkthere a reluckyandunluckydays? E xplainyouranswer. •Thisstonemonument c o m m e m o ratedaspecial c e remonialeventinthelivesof theAztecs.Whatspecialevents h a veoccurredduringyour lifetime?Howhavetheybeen c o m m e m o rated? 43
F u rtherExplorations •Theendofeach52-yearAztec " c e n tury"wasconsidereda p e r iodofterribledangerwhen t h eworldcouldcometoanend. N oonewassureifthesun w o u ldriseagain.Althoughtoday w emayviewsuchbeliefsas i rrational,superstitioncontinues t opervade,evenincontemporary c u l ture.Withyourclass, b r a instormalistofsuperstitions. S o m eexamplesinclude, " F ridaythethirteenth,"and " thecurseoftheBambino." R e s e a r c handreportonthe h i storybehindtheseideasand w h ytheycontinue. 526
L i f e - D e a t hfigure(Apotheosis) H u a x t e c , c a .900-1250 S t o n e , 1 5
8x67x22.9cm
B r o o k l y nMuseumofArt, H e n r yL.BattermanFundand t h eFrankShermanBenson F u n d ,37.2897PA P h o t o©BrooklynMuseum o fArt 1 0 F r o mthe14ththrough16th c e n turiesAztecsdominated c e n tralandsouthernMexico a n destablishedanelaborate a n dwide-rangingempire. A stheAztecsgrewinnumber, t h e ydevelopedsuperiormilitary a n dcivilorganizations. T h eAztecsformedmilitary a llianceswithothergroups, c reatinganempirethatextended f r o mcentralMexicotothe G u a temalanborder.Bytheend o fthereignofMotecuhzomaIIin 1 5 2
0,38tributaryprovinceshad
b e e nestablished;however,some o fthetribesatthefringesofthe A ztecempireremainedfiercely i n d e p e n d e n t. A ztecrulersapproachedwar s o m e whatdifferentlythanwedo t o d a y.Therewerevariedreasons f o rwarfare.Aninsult,atributethat h a dnotbeenpaidoranattackon A ztectraderscouldtriggera m ilitaryresponse.TheAztecs d idnotlaunchsurpriseattacks, n o rdidtheyfightduringcertain s e a s o n soratnight.Declarations o fwarbeganbysendingambassadorstothecitythey p l a n n e dtoattack.Theywouldask thecityleaderstobecomeallies b ypayingtribute,tradingwith theAztecs,andputtingastatue o ftheirgodHuitzilopochtliintheir temple.Theyhadtwentydaysto d e c i d ewhethertheywould c o m p l y .Ifthecityrefused,more a m b a ssadorsarrived.Thistime thetalkwastougher,lessabout theadvantagesofjoiningthe
Aztecsandmoreaboutthe
d e structionanddeath,which c a m etoanycitythatdidnot submit.Toshowhowconfident theywereabouttheoutcomeof a n yfuturewar,theAztecsgave theenemychiefweapons,and m o rewarnings.Ifthisdidnot w o rk,athirdembassyarrived twentydayslater.Politetalkwas replacedbybloodcurdlingthreats a b o u twhatwouldhappenafter thecitylostthewar.Thisincluded d e structionofthecity"stemple, e n slavementofpopulation,and apromisethatcripplingtribute w o u l dbedemandedforyearsto c o m e .Ifthecitystillrefusedto j o i ntheAztecs,thewarbegan. T h roughallofthesenegotiations, C ulturesSubjugatedBytheAztecs 4 5 theAztecshadtimetogain informationandplanhowtobest a ttackthecity.Priestsdecidedon theluckiestdaytostartthebattle, s o ldierspreparedforwar,thearmy s e tout,andthebattlesbegan. U s u allytheAztecswonquickly. T h e ytookasmanyprisonersas p o s sibleforsacrifice,destroyed thelocaltemplesanddecidedon thetributetobepaid.Thenthey madethelocalpeopleworship H u itzilopochtliandrespectthe A z tecemperor.Tributewaspaid regularly,orelseanotherbattle wouldoccur. D iscussionQuestions •HowdoAztecwartacticsand s t rategiesdifferfromthose u sedtoday?Arethereparts t h a tseemeffective?Ineffective?
Ifyouwerecounselingthe
A ztecsonmilitarystrategy,what s u g g e s tionswouldyoumake? •Ifyouwerepartofaneighboring g roupwhattacticswould y o usuggesttoavoidbeing c o n q u e red?LIFE-DEATHFIGURE T h i sLife-Deathfigurewas c r e a tedbytheHuaxtec,apeople w h oweredefeatedbytheAztec a r m i e saround1450andhenceforth p a i dtributetotheAztecempire.
Itisanexcellentembodimentof
aconceptthatranthrough M e soamericancultures;the c o n c e p tofduality.Thislife-size s c u l p turerepresentsayouthful m a l ewearingornamentsanda c l o t hknottedaroundhiswaist,but w h e nweexaminetheotherside o fthisfigurewefindaskeletal figurewithitsribcageandinternal o r g a n sexposed. T h eHuaxteclanguageisstill s p o keninMexicotoday,especially i nruralareas,andthepeople r e taincharacteristictraditions i ntheirmusicanddance.
ItisestimatedthattheHuaxtec
p o p u l a t i o ninMexiconumbers a p p r o ximately80,000people. 4 6 47
D iscussionQuestions •Dividetheclassintotwogroups. E a c hgroupshouldcomposea l istofwordsthatdescribeone s i d eofthesculpture.When c o mplete,postbothlists.Are t h e r ewordsineachlistthatcan b ecombinedtodemonstratethe c o n c e p tofduality?Arethere o thercombinationsthatsuggest o therqualitiesinthissculpture? •Aresomedualitiesstillpartof o u rcontemporarylife?Doyou f e e lthisconceptisstill i mportantorhasitbeenreplaced b yotherideas.Explain.FurtherExplorations •Althoughweseethefrontand b a c kofthisworkinthe p h o tograph,makeadrawing thatshowshowitmightlook fromtheside-inprofile.Ifyou a revisitingthemuseumduring theexhibition,bringthedrawing w i thyou,sothatyoucan c o m p a reyourconceptionwith yourobservationsinthegallery. •Considertheconceptofduality a n dcreateadrawing,poem, e ssay,sculpture,orother p e rsonalexpressionofthis p e rvasivetheme. 11 T othewest,thePurepechapeople, c a lledTarascanbytheSpanish, f lourishedfrom1100to1530. T h ecenteroftheTarascan E mpirewastheircapitalcityof T z intzuntzan.Fromthisreligious a n dadministrativecenter,the T a rascanswagedwaragainst t h e irenemies,theAztecs. P roductssuchashoney,cotton, f e a thers,salt,gold,andcopper w e r ehighlyprizedbythe T a rascans.Neighboringregions t h a tpossessedthesecommodities q u icklybecameaprimarytargetof t h e irmilitaryexpansion.When c o n q u e red,thepeoplesofthese r e g i o n swereexpectedtopay t r ibutesofmaterialgoodstothe T a rascanlord. T h eAztecsattemptedmorethan o n c etoconquertheTarascan l a n d s ,butneversucceeded.This l e fttheAztecswithamajorrivalon t h e irwesternborder.Incombat t h e yrepeatedlysufferedgrievous l o s sestotheTarascanarmies.For e xample,in1478therulingAztec l o r d ,Axayacatl,marchedagainst t h eTarascans.Hefoundhisarmyof24,000confrontedbyan o p p o singforceofmorethan40,000 T a rascanwarriors.Aferocious b a ttlewentonallday.Manyof theAztecwarriorswerebadly w o u n d e dbyarrows,stones, spears,andswordthrusts.The followingday,theAztecswere forcedtoretreat,havingsuffered thelossofmorethanhalfoftheir e l i tewarriors. T h earrivaloftheSpanishcaptain
HernánCortésandhismenonthe
e a stcoastofMexicoinApril1519 l e dtotheendofboththeAztec a n dtheTarascanEmpires. K n o w i n gthattheSpaniardswere o ntheirwaytotheAzteccapital o fTenochtitlan,theAztecssent e m i ssariestotheTarascanstoask forhelp.Insteadofproviding a ssistance,theysacrificedthe
Aztecmessengers.Tenochtitlanfell
i n1521afterabloodysiege. T h eTarascans"turncamein1522. T h elastTarascanking,Tangaxoan
II,offeredlittleresistance.Oncehe
submitted,alltheotherTarascan realmssurrenderedpeacefully.
Aftertheconquest,Spanish
m i ssionariesorganizedthe T h eTarascanEmpire 4 9 6 2 5 C h a c m o o l T a r a s c a n , c a .1250-1521 S t o n e , 8
4x150x48cm
M u s e oNacionalde A n t r o p o l o g í a ,INAH, M e x i c oCity10-1609 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías 50
T a r a scanEmpireintoaseriesof c raft-orientedvillages,andtoday t h eareaaboundswith c raftspeopleskilledinwood, c o p p e r,cloth,andclay. W h yisn"ttheTarascanempire b e tterknown?UnliketheAztecs, t h eTarascansleftnopersonal d o c u mentaryhistories.Withoutthe a ssistanceofSpanishmissionary- h istoriansdedicatedtowriting d o wntheirstory,muchoftheir h istorywaslost.However, a rchaeologicalexcavationsanda s i g n ificantbodyofpottery,copper, a n dstoneobjectsaffordsusa g limpseintothelivesofthisstrong a n dhighlydevelopedcivilization.DiscussionQuestion •Withnewtechnologiesthere a remanywaystopreserve h i story.Namesomeofthe institutionsandtechnologies thathelppreservehistory forfuturegenerations.Also c o n siderwaysthateventoday importanthistoriescanbelost o robliterated.
CHACMOOL
T h etermchacmoolreferstoa s t yleofsculpture,representing amalefigureinaspecificpose: s e a t e donthegroundwithits u p p e rbackraised,theheadis t u r n e dtoanearrightangle,the l e g saredrawnup,elbowsreston t h eground.Thereceptacleheldon t h estomachisthoughttobefor s a c r ificialofferings.Chacmool f igureshavebeenfoundattemples t h r o u g h o u tMesoamerica s u g g e s tingthatthissculptural f o r mwasimportanttoseveral c ivilizations,includingMayan, T o l tec,Aztec,andTarascan.DiscussionQuestion •ThestyleofthisTarascanfigure d i ffersfromthoseoftheAztecs. C h o o seanotherfigureinthis g u i d eandcompareandcontrast thestyleofthetwoworks. •Taketheposeofthechacmool figure.Describehowitfeelsto a ssumethispose.Whatareas o fyourbodyareintension?Even thoughyouarereclining,doyou feelrelaxed?Whatwordscan youfindtodescribeyour a ssociationswiththispose?
FurtherExplorations
•Althoughtheydisplayasimilar p o se,chacmoolfiguresindifferent styleshavebeenfoundinmany
Mesoamericancultures.Research
o therchacmoolfiguresand,using thatinformation,designonethat youthinkmightbediscoveredin futurearchaeologicalexcavations. 5 1 52
12 O nNovember8,1519,theAztec w o r ldchangedforeverwhena g roupofSpanishconquistadores, l e dbyHernánCortés,arrivedat T e n o c h titlantomeetMotecuhzoma I
I.TheninthAztecrulerhadknown
o ftheimpendingarrivalofwhite m e nfromtheeastforanumberof y e a r sandhadsentmessengers t otheGulfCoasttobringnews o fthesestrangers,whose a p p roachingshipsappearedto t h eAztecsashousesfloating o nthesea.Uponhisarrival, M o t e c u h z o mainvitedCortésto T e n o c h titlan,perhapsinthebelief t h a thewasQuetzalcoatl,theruler- p riestandgodwhohadbeen b a n ishedandwho,accordingto l e g e n d ,wouldreturnfromtheeast. C o rtésandMotecuhzomameton o n eofthecausewaysthatlinked T e n o c h titlantothemainland. H e r etheyexchangedwordsand g ifts.Treatedlikegods,theSpanish w e r ewelcomedinTenochtitlan, acitywhosebeautyand s o p h i sticationoverwhelmed t h e m.Theywereuncertainof M o t e c u h z o ma"sintentionshowever, a n d ,awarethattheywereoutnumbered,theysoonbetrayed theAztecrulerandtookhim h o stage.Inresponse,theAztecs a ttackedtheSpaniards,resulting i nawarinwhichbothsides sustainedheavycasualties.
Motecuhzomadiedduringthe
fighting,possiblykilledbyhisown p e o p l eastheythrewstonesatthe c o n q u i stadores.Indesperation, theSpanishfinallyfledthecityby m o o n l i g h tonlateJune1520,an o c c a sionthathascometobe knownastheNocheTriste(Sad N i g h t)bytheSpanish. T h efollowingyeara900-strong S p a n i sharmyreturned,beginning anearly3-month-longsiege thatclaimedmanyAzteclives throughintensefighting,starvation, a n ddisease.Afterfierce resistance,theAzteccapital T e n o c h titlanfinallyfelltoCortés o nAugust13,1521. T h eSpanishconquestcanbe a ttributedtoseveralfactors,among themweretheirsuperiorweapons, w h i c hincludedfirearmsandsteel swords,andtheirmilitarytactics, w h i c h ,unlikeAztecwarfare, T h eTwilightoftheEmpire 5 3 5 9 8 L i e n z odeQuetzpalan C o l o n i a l - P u e b l a , l a t e16thcentury C o t t o nandpigments, 1 5
4x183x53cm
F u n d a c i ó nCulturalTelevisa, M e x i c oCityREG21PJ403 P h o t o :MichelZabé,assistant E n r i q u eMacías focusedonactuallykillingthe e n e my(ratherthancapturingthem a livetobesacrificedtothegods l a ter).Cortésalsoexploited u n d e rlyingtensionsbetween T e n o c h titlanandothercities. H ewashelpedinhisnegotiations w iththeAztecsbyaninterpreter, a nindigenouswoman,Malintzin, w h o mtheSpaniardsrenamed M a rinaandisknowntodayin M e x icoasLaMalinche. A smightbeexpectedconsidering t h econvictionwithwhichtheyhad p racticedtheirownreligion p reviously,theAztecs"conversion t oChristianitywasaslowand g radualprocess.Forawhile,the t woreligionsexistedsomewhat u n e a silytogetherastheAztecs w e reforcedtorelinquishtheir m a n ygodsandgoddessesinfavor o fonesupremedeity.Despitethe e ventualsuccessoftheChristian m ission,someAztecidolswere s t illbeingworshippedmorethan 3 0
0yearslater.FurtherExplorations
•ThemeetingbetweenCortés a n dMotecuhzomaIImarked theencounterbetweentwo d i fferentcivilizationswhoknew littleofeachother.Dividethe c l a ssinhalf:onehalfwill r e p resenthowMotecuhzomaII a n dhisarmiessawtheinvaders; therestshouldimagine themselvesastheSpanish e xpedition.Writescriptsthat d e m o n stratedisparatepoints o fview,andthenstagea meetingenvisioningwhattook p l a c einNovember1519,along thecausewayleadingtothe A z teccapitol. 5 4
CODICES
M u c hofwhatweknowaboutthe A ztecscomesfromtheirbeautiful, h a n d -paintedmanuscripts,or c o d ices(singular:codex). I ntheircodices,Aztecpainter- s c r ibesusedaformofpicture w r iting,whichresembledthe a n c ientEgyptians"hieroglyphics o rthemodern-daycomic.This " w riting"includedpictograms, p h o n e ticsigns,religiousemblems, a n devenmathematicalsymbols. D u r ingtheinitialyearsofSpanish r u l e ,manycodiceswere d e stroyed,especiallythosethat d o c u mentedAztecrituals.Today o n lyafewpre-Hispanicpainted b o o ksfromMexicosurvive. T h iscodex,knownastheLienzoof Q u e tzpalan,wasproducedaspart o falarge-scalegeographicsurvey o fMexicoorderedbytheSpanish g o vernmentinthe1570s.DiscussionQuestions •Examinethepagefromthe c o d e x,LienzoofQuetzpalan.
Howmanysymbols(glyphs)can
youdecipher?Whichsymbols a redifficulttoequatewith ameaning?Trytoconstruct anarrativethatdescribeswhat i sbeingdepicted.
FurtherExplorations
•Topracticecommunicatingusing g l yphs,tryagameofPictionary® (picturecharades).Dividethe c l a ssinhalf.Eachteamshould w riteasetofsecretwordsthat theotherteamwilltrytoguess.
Movie,play,andsongtitlesare
somepossiblecategories.
Aplayertriestodrawsymbols
thatwillgettheirteamtoguess c o rrectly.Notalkingorwritten w o rdsallowed. •Manycodicesdocument h i storicalinformationandevents. C h o o seasubjectandcreate asetofgraphicsymbols(glyphs) toillustrateyourcodex. 5 5 56
C A C A
OChocolate.
C A
LPULLI(cal-PUL-li)Aform
o fkin-basedcommunalliving p racticedinTenochtitlan. C A U S E
WAYSRaisedroadsor
p a thwaysacrosswater. C H
INAMPAS(chi-NAM-pahs)
A ztecfloatinggardensmadefrom r e c laimedswampland. C O D E
XAnAztecbookofpicture
s y mbols.Thepluraliscodices. E
MPIREAgroupofcountriesor
s t a tes,ruledbyasingle g o vernmentoremperor. G L Y P
HApicturesymbolstanding
f o rawordoridea. H U
ITZILPOCHTLI(huit-zi-lo-
P O C H T -li)Sungodandgodofwar. M A
GUEY(MA-guey)Atypeof
c a c tusplantthatprovidedcloth a n dfoodfortheAztecs.MESOAMERICATermusedto d e s c ribethecentralregionof theAmericasinhabitedbynative c i vilizationsbeforethearrivalof theSpanish. M E X
ICAS(Mah-SHEE-kahs)
P e o p l eoftheAztecempire. M
ICTLANTECUHTLI(mict-lan-te-
C U
H-tli)LordofMictlan,the
u n d e r w o rld. M
OSAICAdesignmakefromsmall
p i e c e sofstoneorcoloredglass. M
OTECUHZOMAII(mo-te-cuh-ZO-
m a )TheninthAztecruleratthe timeoftheConquest. N
OBLEApersonofhighbirth,
s u c hasalord. N
AHUATL(NAH-hua-tl)
T h elanguagespokenbythe A z tecsandstillspokentodayby s o m egroupsofCentralHighland M e xico.Avocado(aguacatl)and tomato(tomatl)areNahuatlwords.
Vocabulary
57
N A T
URALISTICThesuggestion,
inaworkofart,ofthedirect o b s e rvationofasceneorfigure.
OBSIDIANHardvolcanicglass
thattheAztecsusedforweapon b lades. P R E C
OLUMBIANTheperiod
o ftimebeforethearrivalof C h r istopherColumbustothe N e wWorldin1492.
QUETZALCOATL(quet-zal-CO-a-tl)
"
Featheredserpent,"important
p a n -
Mesoamericandeity.
S
ACRIFICETokillananimalor
p e r sonasanofferingtothegods. S C R
IBEApersonwhowrites
d o c u mentsandbooksbyhand. S T Y L
IZEDThesimplificationor
g e n e r a lizationofformsfound innature. T E M P
LOMAYOR(TEM-plomay-
OR)TheGreatTempleof
T e n o c h titlan.TENOCHTITLAN(Te-noch-TIT-lan) T h ecapitalcityoftheAztec e m p i re. T
LALOC(TLA-loc)Godofrain.
T R
IBUTEAtypeoftaxpaidinfood
a n dothergoods.
UNDERWORLDTheplacewhere
theAztecsbelievedpeoplewent w h e ntheydied. X
IPETOTEC(Shee-peTOH-tec)
Godofrenewalandrebirth.
58
Intheinterestofsimplifyingthe
textofthisguide,footnoteshave b e e neliminated.Grateful a c k n o wledgmentismadetothe a u thorsofthefollowingworksfor theircontributionstothecontent o fthisguide.
NinaMiall.Aztecs:AnIntroduction
totheExhibition.London:Royal A c a d e myofArts,2002. E d u a r d oMatosMoctezumaand F e lipeSolís.Aztecs.NewYork: H a rryN.Abrams,Inc.,2002. R ichardF.Townsend.TheAztecs. L o n d o n :ThamesandHudson,2000.ForAdults G o rdonBrotherston.Painted B o o ksfromMexico.London: B ritishMuseumPress,1995. D a vídCarrasco.DailyLifeofthe A z tecs:PeopleoftheSunand E a rth.Westport,Conn.:Greenwood P ress,1998. M i c h a e lD.Coe.Mexico:Fromthe O l m e c stotheAztecs.NewYork: T h a m e sandHudson,2002. M i g u e lLeón-Portilla.Aztec T h o u g h tandCulture.Translated b yJackEmoryDavis.Norman: U n i versityofOklahomaPress, 1 990.
E d u a rdoMatosMoctezuma. T h eGreatTempleoftheAztecs: T reasuresofTenochtitlan.London: T h a m e sandHudson,1994. M a ryEllenMiller.TheArtof M e soamericafromOlmecto A z tec.London:Thamesand H u d son,1996.
BibliographyandSuggestedResources
59
M a ryEllenMillerandKarlTaube.
AnIllustratedDictionaryofthe
GodsandSymbolsofAncient
M e xicoandtheMaya.London: T h a mesandHudson,1997. E s therPasztory.AztecArt. N e wYork:HarryN.Abrams,Inc., 1 998.
P a triciaRieffAnawaltandFrances F .Berdan.TheEssentialCodex M e n d o z a.Berkeley:Universityof C a liforniaPress,1997. F e lipeSolís.TheAztecEmpire. N e wYork:GuggenheimMuseum a n dMexicoCity:Landucci E d itores,2004. T h e lmaD.SullivanandT.J.Knab.
AScatteringofJades:Stories,
P o e msandPrayersoftheAztecs. N e wYork:Simon& S c h u s ter/Touchstone,1994.ForChildren E l i z a b e thBaquedano.Aztec,
Inca&Maya.London:Dorling
K i n d e rsley,1993. P e terHicks.TheAztecs.NewYork: T h o m sonLearning,1993.
FionaMacdonald.HowWouldYou
S u rviveasanAztec?Danbury, C o n n . :FranklinWatts,1997. N e i lMorris.UncoveringHistory E verydayLifeofTheAztec,Incas, &Maya.Florence,Italy:McRae
BooksSrl,2003.
P h i l i pSteele.Aztec-News:The
GreatestNewspaperinCivilization.
C a m b ridge,Mass.:Candlewick P ress,1997. T i mWood.TheAztecs.NewYork: V i kingPenguin,1992. 60
Websites
h ttp://anthro.amnh.org D e p a rtmentofAnthropology,AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory www.famsi.org F o u n d a tionfortheAdvancementofMesoamericanStudies www.archaeology.org A rchaeologyMagazine,ArchaeologicalAssociationofAmerica h ttp://copan.bioz.unibas.ch/mesolinks.html h ttp://www.atlanticava.org/WebandCamSites/AztecsIncasMyans.htm P recolumbianArchaeologyRelatedLinks h ttp://library.thinkquest.org/27981/god.html h ttp://www.mexicolore.co.uk/azt_pron.htm P rovidesaudiopronunciationforselectedAztecgodsandNahuatlwords
Videos
InSearchofHistory:TheAztecEmpire
NewYork:A&ETelevisionNetworks,1997
C o lor,50min E mpiresoftheAmericas:AJourneyBackinTime
NewJersey:Kultur,2000
C o lor,50min 61
T h eSacklerCenterforArts E d u c a tionisaninteractive-media facilitydedicatedtoexploring themuseum"scollectionsand e x h ibitionsandmodernand c o n temporaryartingeneral. T h eSacklerCenterforArts E d u c a tionisagiftoftheMortimer
D.SacklerFamily.
E d u c a tionalactivitiesaremade p o s siblebyTheEdithandFrances M u lhallAchillesMemorialFund, T h eEngelbergFoundation,William R a n d o lphHearstFoundation,and T h ePeterJaySharpFoundation. P r o jectManagement S h a r o nVatsky,SeniorEducation M a n a g e r E d itedbyStephenHobanand E lizabethFranzen
DesignedbyJaniceLeeSpecialThanks
WearegratefultoNinaMiall,
P u b l i cProgramsManagerat theRoyalAcademyofArts,for g rantingpermissiontoadapt e d u c a tionalmaterialswritten fortheexhibitionAztecs.
Forcuratorialinsightsandreview:
MarionKocot,ProjectManager,
T h eAztecEmpire.
Foreducationalinsightsandreview:
K i mKanatani,GailEngelberg, D i rectorofEducation R e b e c c aHerz,EducationManager J e ssicaWright,EducationManager S a rahSelvidge,EducationIntern
Dr.GeorgeRappaport,Professor
E m e ritus,WagnerCollege
Creditsand
HonoraryTrusteesinPerpetuity
S o lomonR.Guggenheim J u s tinK.Thannhauser P e g g yGuggenheim H o n o raryChairman P e terLawson-Johnston C h a irman P e terB.Lewis
Vice-Presidents
W e n d yL-J.McNeil S tephenC.Swid J o h nS.Wadsworth,Jr. D irector T h o masKrens S e c r e tary E d wardF.Rover H o n o raryTrustee C laudePompidou T rusteesExOfficio D a v idGallagher D a k isJoannou D irectorEmeritus T h o masM.MesserTrustees J o nImanolAzua P e terM.Brant
MarySharpCronson
GailMayEngelberg
DanielFilipacchi
MartinD.Gruss
FrederickB.Henry
DavidH.Koch
T h o m a sKrens P e terLawson-Johnston P e terLawson-JohnstonII P e terB.Lewis
HowardLutnick
W i l l i a mL.Mack
WendyL-J.McNeil
E d w a rdH.Meyer V l a d i m i rO.Potanin
FrederickW.Reid
S tephenM.Ross
MortimerD.A.Sackler
DeniseSaul
T e rrySemel J a m e sB.Sherwood R a j aW.Sidawi S e ymourSlive J e n n i ferStockman S tephenC.Swid J o h nS.Wadsworth,Jr.
MarkR.Walter
J o h nWilmerding 6 2 T H
ESOLOMONR.GUGGENHEIM
F O U N D A T ION Chair
GailMayEngelberg
M e mbers E lizabethBader
AnnaDeveareSmith
L e sleyM.Friedman R e b e c c aGrafstein
AlanC.Greenberg
R o s lalindG.Jacobs M a u reenLee
WyntonMarsalis
W e n d yL-J.McNeil E lihuH.Modlin P a lomaPicasso S u z a n n ePlotch K a theA.Sackler
GabrielaSerna
VivianSerota
E lizabethR.Varet P e terYarrow 6 3 S
OLOMONR.GUGGENHEIM
E
DUCATIONCOMMITTEE2004
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