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The Complete Reference,
Seventh Edition
About the Author
Herbert Schildtis a leading authority on the
Java, C, C++, and C# languages, and is a master
Windows programmer. His programming books
have sold more than 3.5 million copies worldwide and have been translated into all major foreign languages. He is the author of the best-sellingThe Art of Java, Java: A Beginner"s Guide,and
Swing: A Beginner"s Guide. Among his other
bestsellers areC++: The Complete Reference, C++: A Beginner"s Guide, C#: The Complete Reference,and C#: A Beginner"s Guide. Schildt holds both graduate and undergraduate degrees from the University of Illinois. He can be reached at his consulting office at (217) 586-4683. His Web site is www.HerbSchildt.com. JavaThe Complete Reference,
Seventh Edition
Herbert Schildt
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ee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill norits licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages
resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content o f any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incid ental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been ad vised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arise s in contract, tort or otherwise.Contents at a Glance
Part IThe Java Language
1The History and Evolution of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2An Overview of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3Data Types, Variables, and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6Introducing Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7ACloser Look at Methods and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9Packages and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11Multithreaded Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12Enumerations, Autoboxing, and Annotations (Metadata) . . . . . . . . . 255
13I/O, Applets, and Other Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
14Generics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Part IIThe Java Library
15String Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
16Exploring java.lang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
17java.util Part 1: The Collections Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
18java.util Part 2: More Utility Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
19Input/Output: Exploring java.io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
20Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
21The Applet Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
22Event Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
23Introducing the AWT: Working with Windows, Graphics, and Text . . 663
24Using AWT Controls, Layout Managers, and Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
25Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
26The Concurrency Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
27NIO, Regular Expressions, and Other Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
vPart IIISoftware Development Using Java
28Java Beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
29Introducing Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
30Exploring Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
31Servlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
Part IVApplying Java
32Financial Applets and Servlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
33Creating a Download Manager in Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
AUsing Java"s Documentation Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
viJava: The Complete ReferenceContents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
Part IThe Java Language
1The History and Evolution of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Java"s Lineage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Birth of Modern Programming: C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 C++: The Next Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Stage Is Set for Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6The Creation of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The C# Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 How Java Changed the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Java Applets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Java"s Magic: The Bytecode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Servlets: Java on the Server Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10The Java Buzzwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Object-Oriented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Robust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Multithreaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Architecture-Neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Interpreted and High Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13The Evolution of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Java SE 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
ACulture of Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142An Overview of Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Object-Oriented Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Two Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 The Three OOP Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 AFirst Simple Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Entering the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Compiling the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ACloser Look at the First Sample Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 vii ASecond Short Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Two Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The if Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Using Blocks of Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Lexical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The Java Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31The Java Class Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3Data Types, Variables, and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Java Is a Strongly Typed Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33The Primitive Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
byte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Floating-Point Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Booleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
ACloser Look at Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Integer Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Floating-Point Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Boolean Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Character Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 String Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Declaring a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Dynamic Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 The Scope and Lifetime of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Type Conversion and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Java"s Automatic Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Casting Incompatible Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Automatic Type Promotion in Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 The Type Promotion Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
One-Dimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Alternative Array Declaration Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 viiiJava: The Complete Reference AFew Words About Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 ANote to C/C++ Programmers About Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Basic Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 The Modulus Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Arithmetic Compound Assignment Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Increment and Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60The Bitwise Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Bitwise Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 The Left Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 The Right Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 The Unsigned Right Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Bitwise Operator Compound Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Boolean Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Short-Circuit Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Assignment Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73The ? Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Operator Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Using Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5Control Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Java"s Selection Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77if . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Iteration Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
do-while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
The For-Each Version of the for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Nested Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Jump Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Using break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Using continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6Introducing Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Class Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
The General Form of a Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 ASimple Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Declaring Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
ACloser Look at new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Assigning Object Reference Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Introducing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Adding a Method to the Box Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112Contentsix
Returning a Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Adding a Method That Takes Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Parameterized Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119The this Keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Instance Variable Hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The finalize( ) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
AStack Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7A Closer Look at Methods and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Overloading Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Overloading Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Using Objects as Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 ACloser Look at Argument Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Returning Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Introducing Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Understanding static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Introducing final . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Arrays Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Introducing Nested and Inner Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Exploring the String Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Using Command-Line Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Varargs: Variable-Length Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Overloading Vararg Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Varargs and Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1558Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Inheritance Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Member Access and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 AMore Practical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 ASuperclass Variable Can Reference a Subclass Object . . . . . 162Using super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Using super to Call Superclass Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 ASecond Use for super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Creating a Multilevel Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 When Constructors Are Called . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Method Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Dynamic Method Dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Why Overridden Methods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Applying Method Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Using Abstract Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Using final with Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Using final to Prevent Overriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Using final to Prevent Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181The Object Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
xJava: The Complete Reference9Packages and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Defining a Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Finding Packages and CLASSPATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 AShort Package Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Access Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
An Access Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187Importing Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Defining an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Implementing Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Nested Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Applying Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Variables in Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Interfaces Can Be Extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20210Exception Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Exception-Handling Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Exception Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Uncaught Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Using try and catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Displaying a Description of an Exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Multiple catch Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Nested try Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
throw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
throws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
finally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Java"s Built-in Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Creating Your Own Exception Subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Chained Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Using Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11Multithreaded Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
The Java Thread Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Thread Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Messaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 The Thread Class and the Runnable Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226The Main Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Creating a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Implementing Runnable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Extending Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Choosing an Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Creating Multiple Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232Using isAlive( ) and join( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Thread Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Contentsxi
Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Using Synchronized Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 The synchronized Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Interthread Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Deadlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Suspending, Resuming, and Stopping Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Suspending, Resuming, and Stopping Threads
Using Java 1.1 and Earlier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249The Modern Way of Suspending, Resuming,
and Stopping Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251Using Multithreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12Enumerations, Autoboxing, and Annotations (Metadata) . . . . . . . . 255
Enumerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Enumeration Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 The values( ) and valueOf( ) Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Java Enumerations Are Class Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Enumerations Inherit Enum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Another Enumeration Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Type Wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
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