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Ecole Doctorale :

Sciences et Ingénierie en Matériaux, Mécanique, Energétique Secteur de Recherche : Energétique, Thermique et Combustion

Présentée par :

Amal ZEAITER

THERMAL MODELING AND COOLING OF ELECTRIC MOTORS.

APPLICATION TO THE PROPULSION OF HYBRID AIRCRAFT

Directeurs de thèse :

Matthieu FÉNOT

Etienne VIDECOQ

Soutenue le 13 octobre 2020

dev : JURY

Présidente :

Eva DORIGNAC, Professeure des Universités, Université de Poitiers

Rapporteurs :

Julien PELLÉ, Professeur des Universités, ENSIAME, Valenciennes Charbel HABCHI, Assistant Professor, Notre Dame University, Louaizé

Membres :

Xavier ROBOAM, Directeur de Recherche CNRS, ENSEEIHT, Toulouse Matthieu FÉNOT, Maître de Conférences, ISAE-ENSMA de Poitiers Etienne VIDECOQ, Maître de Conférences, ISAE-ENSMA de Poitiers | i

Time is way too long for us no

You have given me the support, the encouragement, and everything I needed to begin the journey of my doctoral thesis presence is still inspiring me! You deserve a lot more than the dedication of the present work to acknowledge your past existence in this life for all your sacrifices.

I love you DAD <3

ii |

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | iii

En commençant la thèse, à part ce sentiment de fierté de pouvoir contrib la science ou du monde, on passe par une phase où l'on se projette dans le futur, au moment de la fin, mais on n'imagine pas le lot d'événements et de circonstances que l'on va traverser pendant ces quelques années. Je voudrais bien r

qui m'ont accompagnée, celles qui m'ont soutenue, et celles qui ont participé à la réalisation de

la thèse jusqu'à la soutenance, voire au-delà. Je tiens tout d'abord à présenter mes plus amples remerciements à M. Matthieu FÉNOT, qui

a encadré ce travail de thèse, et à qui je suis profondément reconnaissante. Merci Matthieu pour

tes conseils, ta confiance, tes recommandations judicieuses, mais surtout pour ta façon

d'échanger sur les problématiques scientifiques. C'est avec beaucoup d'émotions que j'écris ces

quelques lignes qui ne représentent que très peu de ce que j'ai à te dire pour te remercier encore,

autant sur le niveau académique de la recherche que sur le niveau humain. J'ai eu la chance de te connaître et d'avoir effectué la thèse sous ta direction. Je remercie profondément M. Etienne VIDECOQ -encadrement de

thèse. Je suis consciente que tout le travail que nous avons effectué et les échanges scientifiques

fructueux que nous avons eus m'ont permis d'avancer efficacement dans mon travail. Pourtant,

si je tiens à te remercier, Etienne, c'est aussi pour avoir été présent durant la thèse surtout aux

moments les plus délicats, pour avoir été patient mais toujours critique pour perfectionner le

travail, et pour avoir donné les remarques pertinentes et suggestions scientifiques sincères et

adaptées. Je te remercie également pour tout ce que j'ai appris de toi. être vous, parce que vous êtes des vrais encadrant de progression pour le développement que vous portez en vous. rapporteurs de la thèse M. Julien PELLÉ et M. Charbel HABCHI. Je vous remercie d'avoir pris le temps d'évaluer le travail, de votre lecture très attentive du mémoire ainsi que de vos remarques précieuses. Je vous remercie également d'avoir participé au jury de soutenance. Grâce à cette particip le futur. Ce n'est pas toujours le cas dans un jury de soutenance d'avoir des chercheurs qui travaillent dans des domaines assez variés. Je remercie Mme Eva DORIGNAC et M. Xavier ROBOAM

d'avoir participé à ce jury et d'être venus partager leurs avis, leurs connaissances et leurs

iv | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

expertises sur différents points de vue : thermique, énergétique, électrotechnique et intégration

de systèmes. Je remercie également M. Yvan LEFEVRE et M. Jean-François ALLIAS pour leur participation au jury en tant qu'invités.

Pour nos échanges collaboratifs, u

Pprime, M. Yves BERTIN, M. Vincent AYEL et M. Flavio ACCORINTI, ainsi que du

Sarah, je voudrais te dire plus qu'un

J'ai gagné une vraie amie et j'apprécie énormément cette amitié et tous les échanges

que nous avons eus durant ces années de thèse.

Merci également à l'Union Européenne pour le financement de la thèse, à l'ISAE-ENSMA de

m'avoir accueillie en tant que doctorante, ainsi que l'Institut Pprime et l'École Doctorale SIMME, membres, directions et personnel administratif. Merci aux membres de l'équipe de thermique de Pprime, ceux avec qui j'ai eu des discussions et j'ai partagé des moments conviviaux Mes remerciements vont aux personnes charmantes que j'ai côtoyées et connues à Poitiers et

qui m'ont accueillie à différents endroits dans cette ville assez originale et élégante : A

l'ENSMA, Mme Jocelyne BARDEAU, cette dame attachante et aimable, et dans ma grande famille à l'ASPTT, Mme Geneviève DELACHAUME et M. Gilles CATALOT, ainsi que tous les membres et Team Pilates pour votre accueil chaleureux et convivial, et pour les moments sportifs, spirituels et humains que nous avons partagés. Je remercie les amis que j'ai connus ici, pour tous les beaux souvenirs que nous avons

créés. Merci surtout à celles et ceux qui réussissent toujours à avoir un esprit positif et à

rehausser le moral, merci pour leur compréhension lorsque la situation était compliquée. r, et à mes amis, sans

votre support je ne serais pas arrivée à tenir le coup, j'espère que vous êtes fiers aujourd'hui de

cet aboutissement. A ma maman que j'aime infiniment, je ne pourrai jamais te dire autant de 'merci' que tu le

mérites. Merci pour avoir supportée et soutenue toujours dans les hauts et les bas, surtout ces

deux dernières années. Si je veux remercier la personne qui a eu le plus grand impact sur mon arrivée à ce stade de mon parcours académique, c'est sans doute toi papa. Ton absence me laisse sans mots, mais pour tous tes sacrifices et pour ton encouragement infini, je vais garder la force et la motivation que tu m'avais léguées pour avancer toujours.

CONTENTS | v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................... iii

CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... v

NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AIRCRAFT PROPULSION .............................. 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 HASTECS: The Project under CleanSky II ................................................................ 2

1.3 Why Hybrid Aircraft? .................................................................................................. 5

1.3.1 Environmental Issues, Reality or Myth? .............................................................. 5

1.3.2 Towards Transportation Electrification and Hybridization ................................. 8

1.4 Electric Motors for Vehicle Propulsion ..................................................................... 10

1.4.1 Overview of Electric Motors Types ................................................................... 12

1.4.2 From Ground to Air Vehicles Examples ............................................................ 19

1.4.3 Electric Motors, Suitable but? ............................................................................ 24

1.5 Thermal Issues in Electric Motors ............................................................................. 25

1.6 Purpose and Thesis Contents ..................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 2 E-MOTOR THERMAL MANAGEMENT STATE OF THE ART .............. 27

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 28

2.2 Heat Transfer in Electric Machinery ......................................................................... 28

2.2.1 Conduction Mode ............................................................................................... 29

2.2.2 Convection Mode ............................................................................................... 33

2.3 Electric Motor Cooling Methods ............................................................................... 48

2.3.1 External Cooling Methods ................................................................................. 49

2.3.2 Internal Cooling Methods ................................................................................... 59

2.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 73

vi | CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 LUMPED PARAMETER THERMAL MODELING .................................... 75

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 76

3.2 LPTM Approach ........................................................................................................ 76

3.3 Electric Motor System Definition .............................................................................. 80

3.3.1 E-Motor Geometry and Materials Properties ..................................................... 81

3.3.2 Boundary conditions .......................................................................................... 82

3.3.3 Electric Motor Losses (Heat Sources) ................................................................ 82

3.3.4 Initial Conditions ................................................................................................ 87

3.4 Modeling Assumptions .............................................................................................. 87

3.4.1 Geometry ............................................................................................................ 87

3.4.2 Symmetry and Periodicity for Model Reduction ............................................... 88

3.4.3 Temperature-Independent Media Physical Properties ....................................... 89

3.5 LPTM Construction ................................................................................................... 89

3.5.1 Thermal Conductance Matrix G ......................................................................... 89

3.5.2 Thermal Capacity Matrix C ................................................................................ 91

3.5.3 Heat Sources and Heat Sinks Vector Ȍ .............................................................. 91

3.5.4 Space Discretization and Nodal Network .......................................................... 91

3.6 Thermal Properties of Components ........................................................................... 95

3.6.1 Equivalent Properties of Heterogeneous Components ....................................... 96

3.6.2 Contact Thermal Resistance ............................................................................. 101

3.7 Validation with Experimental Results ..................................................................... 103

3.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 106

CHAPTER 4 THERMAL MANAGEMENT OF DESIGNED E-MOTORS .................... 107

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 108

4.2 Electric Motor Design for 2025 (EM2025) ............................................................. 108

4.2.1 Thermal Constraint Evaluation ........................................................................ 109

4.2.2 Motor Design and Sizing .................................................................................. 112

CONTENTS | vii

4.2.3 Thermal and Physical Properties ...................................................................... 115

4.2.4 Dynamical Profile of Power ............................................................................. 116

4.3 Cooling System ........................................................................................................ 118

4.3.1 Thermal Resistance Analysis ........................................................................... 119

4.3.2 Nodal Network ................................................................................................. 124

4.3.3 Cooling technology .......................................................................................... 126

4.3.4 Heat Exchanger of Cooling System ................................................................. 128

4.4 Thermal Behavior of the System ............................................................................. 135

4.4.1 Thermohydraulic Parameters and Characteristics ............................................ 136

4.4.2 Results and Analysis ........................................................................................ 138

4.4.3 Influence of Thermophysical Parameters Variation ......................................... 147

4.4.4 Fluid Choice ..................................................................................................... 150

4.4.5 Exchanger Surface and Coolant Flows ............................................................ 154

4.5 Case-studies ............................................................................................................. 157

4.5.1 Influence of Flight Mission Scenarios ............................................................. 157

4.6 Electric Motor for 2035 ........................................................................................... 158

4.6.1 Motor Cooling System Choice ......................................................................... 159

4.6.2 First Motor Design and Results ........................................................................ 161

4.6.3 Second Design for EM2035 ............................................................................. 165

4.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 171

CHAPTER 5 MODEL INVESTIGATION AND INVERSE METHOD .......................... 173

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 174

5.2 Sensitivity of Motor Temperature to Losses ........................................................... 174

5.3 Losses Identification using an Inverse Method ....................................................... 178

5.3.1 Interest and Background ................................................................................... 178

5.3.2 Heat Transfer Equation .................................................................................... 179

5.3.3 State-Space Representation .............................................................................. 179

viii | CONTENTS

5.3.4 Inverse Problem Solution ................................................................................. 181

5.3.5 Results and Analysis ........................................................................................ 185

5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 195

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES ................................................... 197

6.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 198

6.2 Perspectives ............................................................................................................. 200

FUNDING ACKNOWLEDGMENT ..................................................................................... 203

........................................................................... 205

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 213

NOMENCLATURE | ix

Variables and Parameters

݄ convection heat transfer coefficient W·m2·K1

݃ gravitational acceleration m·s2

ݑ velocity m·s1

ݎ radius m or mm

V volume m3

P electric losses W

H hydraulic losses m

S surface m2

t time s t time step s

ݍ flow rate m3·s1

A linear surface current density kA·m1

J current density A·mm2

R thermal resistance K1·W

࣬ electrical resistance ȍ

N number of nodes

ॡ moment coefficient (for friction) nf number of future times for specification function np number of heat sources nq number of outputs nt number of time steps

Greek symbols

ᗣ electrical resistivity ȍ system boundary x | NOMENCLATURE

U mean quadratic error for U W

Y main quadratic error for Y, °C

system domain

Matrices and vectors

P heat source vector W

U vector of unknown heat sources W

K vector of known heat sources W

V vector of known inputs

vol volume m3

Y (nq) output vector

Dimensionless numbers

Abbreviations

WP Work-Package

EV Electric Vehicle

HEV Hybrid-Electric Vehicle

HASTECS Hybrid Aircraft Academic reSearch on Thermal and Electrical

Components Systems

MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight

MEW Maximum Empty Weight

DC Direct Current

AC Alternating Current

PU Per-Unit

NOMENCLATURE | xi

NdFeB Neodymium Iron Boron

Sm2Co17 Samarium Cobalt

LPTM Lumped Parameter Thermal Model

PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine

SM Surface Mounted

PCM Phase Changing Material

EM2025 Electric Motor for year 2025

EM2035 Electric Motor for year 2035

FTS Future Time Steps

Subscripts

ݓ wall

"‡ˆ reference

݄ hydraulic

݌ at constant pressure

ext exterior k time index f for fluid at a surface

ݎ with respect to radius

݈݁ for electrical

cu for copper ch for channel

Superscripts

* noisy temperature ^ estimated value

T transposition sign

-1 inverse of a matrix

݂ for fluid

radial for radial direction eq for equivalent properties xii | NOMENCLATURE | 1

CHAPTER 1 ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AIRCRAFT

PROPULSION

Synopsis:

A presentation of the subject area of the thesis and its problematics is developed in this chapter. Moreover, electric motors main characteristics and issues are summarized to focus on the topic of electric propulsion of aircrafts.

2 | CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

Electric propulsion of vehicles is being increasingly investigated recently for a possible reduction in gas emissions and particulates. Besides the challenge of switching to a new architecture that goes with this goal, constraints relative to electric motors are defying the design of electric propulsion systems. Indeed, due to limited space and weight in vehicles, high- performance compact motors are strongly required. Fortunately, the technological advancements in materials and technologies have enabled the development of a new generation of high specific power motors (up to a few kW/kg). Generally in the transportation sector (ground, marine, and aeronautical applications) and specifically for cars, a turning point in the electric machinery domain has been registered during the last decade, highlighted by the rising interest in developing Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles (HEV). While propulsion electrification and hybridization are considered a promising solution for environmental pollution, electric motors in the aeronautical domain are constrained by several issues such as performance, weight, altitude, external conditions, safety, etc. The objective of this chapter is to approach the thesis topic, by defining some important concepts and clarifying the basics in this subject area.

1.2 HASTECS: The Project under CleanSky II

This work is carried out within the framework of a project called HASTECS (Figure 1.1), standing for Hybrid Aircraft Academic reSearch on Thermal and Electrical Components Systems). This project kick-started in September 2016 and is currently running until 2021.

Figure 1.1 : HASTECS Project logo.

ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AIRCRAFT PROPULSION | 3

The hybrid-electric propulsion model consists of several inputs for electrical and thermal engines systems (i.e. Mach number and altitude as a function of time) that contribute to determining the Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) of the plane at each iteration in a global optimization process as depicted in Figure 1.2. The Maximum Empty Weight (MEW) is given by Airbus, and the loopback on this weight is performed using a simplified function, subject to specific constraints (for instance, the drag effect not taken into account). HASTECS project is located at the electric propulsion units design and studies, aiming to reach the propulsion target in terms of weight. Figure 1.2 : Hybrid Aircraft power chain with HASTECS project-area [HASTECS Workshop October

2018].

The general objective of HASTECS project, indicated in the project proposal, is to support Hybrid Electric Aircraft propulsion demonstration by developing electro-thermal models and tools to assess the main benefits of different hybrid propulsion architectures and power management for short/medium-range aircraft. These means will help to design propulsive electrical architectures for radical aircraft, by setting specific objectives for different Work-Packages (WPs). System-level integration of the assessments is the task assigned to the Work-Package 6 of the project (WP6) from main components design and analysis of the hybrid power chain (see Figure 1.3). This chain consists

4 | CHAPTER 1

of electric machine designs (WP1), associated cooling systems (WP3), power electronics and cables (WP2, 5), and associated thermal management (WP4). It considers the main environmental constraints, especially the partial discharges (WP5) due to high-power-ultra- high voltage new standards.

The project is

2020 research and innovation program. For short and long-term targets, objectives have been

fixed in terms of specific powers considering reasonable possible development in materials choices, and technologies. The specific power of electric machines is doubled from 5 kW/kg for

2025 to 10 kW/kg for 2035, while specific powers of converters must be increased from

15 kW/kg for 2025 to 25 kW/kg for 2035. For instance in electric machinery, the properties of

new insulators, impregnation materials, and magnets, are currently being investigated in industries and research institutes to be applied in the long-term future, while it is confirmed for other promising materials that they will be available to use in electric machinery in the short- term future. The current thesis is registered to work on WP3. The electric machines specialists of WP1 provide multiple designs of motors to match the short-term and long-term targets (2025 e-motor and 2035 e-motor). A strong interaction between our Work-Package (WP3) and WP1 has been developed during the project running time. Both workgroups have been collaborating to harmonize tools and models to meet the specific power density targets considering the electrical and thermal constraints and motor efficiencies. To exceed the existing limits of motor specific power density, HASTECS electric machine and heat transfer specialists mutualized their electromagnetic and thermal investigations to find genuine technological solutions. From a thermal point of view, the interaction requires first a definition of some basic points: electric motor types, the specificity of electric motor for propulsion, the limiting constraints in terms of temperature and weight, origins of thermal problems in these motors, and possible configurations that could be suitable in this groundbreaking application.

ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AIRCRAFT PROPULSION | 5

Figure 1.3 : HASTECS Project Work-Packages scheme for interactions. In this framework, the objective of this Electric Motor C WP3, is to elaborate thermal models for super-high specific power electric motors, conceived in the project, and to configure suitable cooling systems. It aims to design and assess adequate techniques for the thermal management of such motors. With the existing technologies, the electric motors compactness and power are toughly limited by thermal constraints that should be respected. Also, with the high targets of global performance and specific power, motors for aeronautical propulsion should be investigated acutely from electro-technical as well as thermal points of view. These points are the topic lead-ins of our study and will be developed successively in the thesis.

1.3 Why Hybrid Aircraft?

1.3.1 Environmental Issues, Reality or Myth?

The increased carbon footprint is challenging scientists, researchers, and environment specialists to raise interest and investigate other sustainable energy supply sources. The resulting anomaly is alarming with an increasing average land-sea temperature. This will change the global vital conditions on earth, together with higher frequency and intensity of heatwaves, hazardous fire weather, and drought conditions in multiple zones of the earth [1].

6 | CHAPTER 1

Many are the indicators of climate change and global warming, could it be the air temperature, ocean warming and sea-level rise, extreme weather events, or the changing rainfall patterns resulting from the changing global water cycle and intensifying with a warming climate. NASA [2] provided data on global temperature variations, as depicted in Figure 1.4. The rising temperature curves in the past decades prove that the warming effect on earth is rapidly growing. The climate models are developed, according to intermittent factors, to simulate and predict the responses of environment temperatures to all influencing factors [3]. Ignoring the alerting signs indicates that global surface warming will follow the trend line indicated in red in Figure 1.5. Figure 1.4 : Yearly temperature anomalies from 1880 to 2019 [2].

ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AIRCRAFT PROPULSION | 7

Figure 1.5 : Global surface warming evolution in time with future projection scenarios [3].

It is thought that if no concrete actions are adopted to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

considering plausible emission scenarios, by the end of the current century, the average temperature could increase between 2 °C and 6 °C. The European Union is committed to meet technical environmental goals set in the European , which is to reduce by 75% CO2 and by

90% NOx emissions, and by 65% the noise. Data and statistics of the International Energy

Agency [4] for around a quarter of global

CO2 emissions in the world, as seen in the diagram of Figure 1.6. With that being said, the transportation sector, implying broad private companies and industries, is now seeking sustainability for propulsion power systems mainly, and for other deployments as well. One can cite, for instance, the CO2 roadmap at Airbus. They, among other companies in this sector, are willing to achieve sustainable air travel soon, through greater decarbonization (a reduction of 50% of the net aviation carbon emissions by 2050 compared to what they were in 2005), by improving environmental performance and adopting sustainable supply chain, etc [5].

8 | CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.6 : Global CO2 emissions by sector in 2017 [4]. A key objective is to conceive and produce transportation means that consume less fuel or other " new » and cleaner energy sources and therefore reduce toxicity emission levels.

1.3.2 Towards Transportation Electrification and Hybridization

Vehicles have been powered, for a long time, predominantly by fuel of fossil - or biomass - origins that ignite in their heat engines emitting pollutant substances and gases. As for cars and ground vehicles, propulsion hybridization is thought to be an ecological solution for planes as well. Aircraft hybridization (with solar power such as Sunseeker II [6] or electric power such as the Pipistrel Taurus Electro G2.5 [7]), and aircraft electrification ( [8] as an example) was recently investigated as a solution to enable achieving the aforementioned environmental goals. To accelerate electrification, Rolls Royce Company - in partnership with YASA electric motor and controller manufacturer and Electroflight aviation start-up - has started an initiative called ACCEL[9], within which an all-electric powered aircraft with zero-emissions was unveiled in late December 2019 in an Iron Bird test airframe as shown in Figure 1.7. This plane, characterized by its high speed (over 480 km/h), is scheduled to take off in 2020. On the other hand, the first flight of the largest commercial all- electric aircraft (flying testbed) took place on May 28, 2020, with a Cessna 208B Grandquotesdbs_dbs26.pdfusesText_32

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