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Université Nice Sophia Antipolis

The Role of Ethics on Tourist Destination Image Formation:

An Analysis of the French Student Travel Market.

Le rôle de l'éthique sur les processus de formation de l'image d'une destination touristique : Une analyse d'un public étudiant voyageur français Thèse pour l'obtention du Doctorat en Sciences de Gestion présentée et soutenue publiquement le 10 décembre 2015 par

Jeanette MCDONALD

Jury

Directeur de recherche Monsieur André BOYER

Professeur à l'Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis

Rapporteurs Monsieur Eric LEROUX

Maître de Conférences HDR à l'Université Paris XIII

Monsieur Claude CHAILAN

Professeur Associé HDR à l'Université de Strasbourg

Suffragant Madame Nadine TOURNOIS

Professeur à l'Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis 2 L'Université n'entend donner aucune approbation ni improbation aux opinions émises dans cette thèse. Ces opinions doivent être considérées comme propres à leur auteur. 3

Acknowledgements

There are several people that I would like to acknowledge and thank for their support throughout this doctoral process. Firstly to my directeur de recherche, Professeur André Boyer for his guidance and motivating feedback, which gave reassurance when it was most needed. I would also like to thank my colleagues at IPAG Business School, especially in the last few months of the completion of this work, your good wishes and encouragement have been very much appreciated. A special acknowledgment must go to Marie Thuriot for helping with my written French; especially for proofreading the French verbatim, also to Linda Prince and Marie José Scotto, thank you ladies for your ideas and especially for listening. I am also very grateful to Sian Jones who gave her time and expertise in the proofreading of this work and to Coralie Montlahuc for her rigorous and professional approach to transcribing the data. Gratitude also goes to the young French student travellers, who gladly participated in this research, thank you for your time and for sharing. This is your story. Finally, to my friend Mabrouk Mastouri, to my aunt Eileen and uncle James McDonald for their encouragement and faith in my ability, and to Margaret and my father Allan, for their prayers and candles that have been a key source and support throughout this process. 4

List of Contents

General Introduction 7

PART I LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 1 Tourist Destination Image

1.1 Introduction 15

1.2 Defining Tourist Destination Image 15

1.2.1 Terminology used in destination image 15

1.2.2 Factors influencing the meaning of destination image 18

1.3 The role of image in destination marketing 20

1.4 Tourist destination image formation 23

1.4.1 The components of destination image 23

1.4.2 The hierarchical relationship between components 27

1.4.3 The Destination Image Process 28

1.4.4 Influencing factors on destination image 32

1.5 Summary of Tourist Destination Image 38

Chapter 2 Ethics and the Tourism Industry

2.1 Introduction 41

2.2 Defining Ethics and its Terminology 41

2.3 Principal Ethical Theories 42

2.3.1 Teleology 43

2.3.2 Deontology 45

2.3.3 Existentialism 47

2.4 The Role of Ethics on Consumer Behaviour 49

2.4.1 Ethical consumption and the ethical consumer 49

2.4.2 Ethical decision-making in consumer behavior 51

2.4.3 Factors influencing ethical consumption 52

2.4.4 Principal research areas in ethical consumption 55

2.5 Evolution of Ethical Tourism 55

2.5.1 Ethical Tourism 59

2.5.2 Codes and conducts in Ethical Tourism 63

2.6 Evolution of the Ethical Tourist 67

2.6.1 Youth and Student Travel Market 70

2.7 Summary of Ethics and the Tourism Industry 74

2.7.1 Model of Tourist Destination Image 79

5 Part II METHODOLOGY, ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSIS

Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction 81

3.1.1 Research Aim, Objectives and Questions 81

3.1.2 The Process and Description of the 82

Research Philosophy, Approach and Methods

3.2 Research Paradigms 83

3.3 Qualitative Methodology in the Research Process 86

3.4 Qualitative Methods in the Research Process 87

3.4.1 Focus Groups 87

3.4.2 Projective Techniques 89

3.4.3 Using Collage as a Projective Technique 91

3.5 The Research Context - Setting the Scene 94

3.5.1 Recruitment Sample 94

3.5.2 The Focus Group and Collage Creation Process 95

3.5.3 Role of the Researcher in the Data Collection Process 99

3.6 Data Saturation 100

3.7 Transcription of Data 100

3.8 Data Analysis - Coding 101

3.9 Thematic Analysis 103

3.10 Creating Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research 106

3.11 Ethical Considerations 108

3.12 Limitations of the Research 109

3.13 Summary of Methodology chapter 110

Chapter 4 Analysis and Interpretation of Findings

4.1 Introduction 112

4.2 Global Discussion and Summary of Focus Group Open Questions 113

4.2.1 How would you define ethics? 113

4.2.2 How would you define and Ethical Tourist Destination? 125

4.2.3 How can the Tourism Industry use CSR? 137

4.2.4 Who is responsible for the destination's image? 141

4.2.5 What factors influence a Tourist Destination's Image? 145

4.3 Global Discussion of Collage Constructions 153

4.3.1 Themes and Sub-themes from visual collages 153

4.3.2 Social Dimensions of an Ethical Tourist Destination Image 155

4.3.3 Environmental Dimensions of an Ethical Tourist Destination Image 181

4.3.4 Political Dimensions of an Ethical Tourist Destination Image 193

4.3.5 Economic Dimensions of an Ethical Tourist Destination Image 197

4.3.6 Conclusion & Discussion of Global collage results 200

6

4.4 Individual Group Analysis and Interpretation of Open Questions 209

4.4.1 Defining Ethics 209

4.4.2 Defining and Ethical Tourist Destination 213

4.4.3 Examples of Ethical Destinations 216

4.4.4 Who is responsible for the Tourist Destination's Image? 217

4.4.5 What is the role of CSR? 218

4.4.6 What factors influence an Ethical Tourist Destination Image 219

4.5 Collage Analysis and Interpretation of Individual Groups 222

4.5.1 Social Theme 222

4.5.2 Environmental Theme 224

4.5.3 Political Theme 225

4.5.4 Economic Theme 226

4.6 Global Analysis and Interpretation Revisited 227

4.7 Cognitive, Affective and Conative Evaluations of a 229

Ethical Tourist Destination's Image

4.8 Summary of Analysis & Interpretation of Findings 232

General Conclusion 233

Bibliography 240

List of Appendices 260

List of Tables 299

List of Figures 300

7

General Introduction

1. Background and Rationale to Research

"Tourism is like a bridge. It connects our countries and it can connect people to each other." Karen Chen (in Controversies in Tourism, 2012, p.11) The tourism industry, one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world (United Nations World Tourism Organisation UNWTO, 2015) represents a global economic activity working with destinations worldwide from principal cities and capitals to rural villages. It represents an estimated economic value of US$ 1,245 billion (937 bn euros) (UNWTO,

2015), and provides 277 million jobs worldwide (World Travel and Tourism Council, WTTC,

2014), with an expected growth rate of 2.6% by the end of 2015 (UNWTO, 2015). It is

perhaps not surprising therefore that Fennell (2006, p. 1) describes tourism as being "the world's foremost economic engine" and "economic giant." There is an array of benefits that come with tourism, such as improved facilities and infrastructure for local residents, increased and complemented financial income, increased spending can create viability for local businesses. It can also raise socio-cultural awareness for host and visitor as well as preserving the manmade and natural elements that comes with the tourism product (Gonzalez Bernaldez, 1994). In their Tourism Highlights, the UNWTO (2015) reported that more and more destinations are investing in tourism development, creating jobs, companies and improving infrastructure that has enabled socio-economic progress; a key driver of change. Many destinations promote their cultural heritage attracting visitors to what could be described as an authentic holiday and what governments may consider to be a learning of cultures and understanding between people, improving international relations between governments and nurturing world peace (WTTC, 2014). The intent is that these benefits are accessible to the international flow of arrivals that reached a total of 1,133 million overnight visitors worldwide in 2014. The UNWTO (2014) report that the flow of international visitors has represented an average increased growth of 3.3% per year since 2009, regardless of the macro trials that the industry has been faced with. 8 Some however would argue that all this economic wealth and creation of employment has come at cost, especially to those parties who do not have the same force or clout to contest the negative impacts that arguably come hand in hand with the economic advantages. Influences have predominately been put under the environmental, economic and social impacts that affect destinations and local communities. This has been noted under dominating local land to build western styled hotels that attract wealthy tourists who are looking to get away from it all, but expecting a home from home experience. Tourism may generate employment, however many people are obliged to leave their families and communities, rather than finding opportunities in local employment (Fennell, 2006). Communities are being deprived of their natural resources to assist in upgrading the infrastructure that is required to attract a particular type of tourist. It could be argued that the improvement of local infrastructure is a positive influence and generates a progressive economic impact to local tourism. However, the paradox is that most of the returns from local tourism will be given to the foreign businesses that own and dominate the local tourism products and services. When presented with such information it is easy to see that tourism development often comes at a cost (Moufakkir, 2012) of which has received much criticism by an array of academics and associations alike (Saarinen, 2004). Researchers Fleckenstein and Huebsch (1999, p.

142) put it plainly more than a decade ago when they stated that,

" .... the tourism industry must realise that the industry is community based and consideration must be given to the socio-cultural costs of tourism development and, being service orientated, it must be ethical in its treatment of customers and employees." This has given way to 'alternative' types of tourisms that have derived from the needed solutions to combat the negative impacts that come with Mass tourism. These different types of tourisms also attempt to manage the growth of 1,133 million visitors per year and answer the growing demands and trends that come with the evolution of holiday consumerism. There are many examples provided by the industry which range from 'sustainable', 'responsible', 'ethical', 'just', 'eco', to 'fair trade' (Lovelock & Lovelock, 2013). However, the majority have derived from the purposes of sustainable tourism that was introduced by the World Commission for the Environment and Development in 1987 via the Brundtland report. The principal objective of sustainable tourism was an attempt to manage the economic, social and environmental impacts that influenced the assortment of stakeholders from both a visitor and 9 host perspective. Although sustainable tourism portrays an overall positive image for the industry, this array of opportunistic alternatives has been criticised for being simply a form of greenwashing that does not get to the root of the problem. This was discussed recently by authors Grimwood et al., (2015, p.23) who cited Wheeler (1991) as being an early cynic that believed 'responsible' tourism was simply a "marketing ploy rather than an ethical planning mechanism." There is also the belief that 'Alternative' tourisms are indeed more damaging to local communities than that of Mass tourism (Macleod, 2004). There is a general consensus that mass tourism has more of a negative than positive image (Moufakkir, 2012). It brings to the industry problems such as the impact of physically shepherding millions of tourists across the globe and the use and waste of natural resources which rightfully belong to local communities. It is also criticized for its economic leakages which have negative impacts on the growth and sustainability of local produce along with "middle and top management jobs being filled by foreigners with little or no opportunity for locals to move up" (Oriade & Evans, 2011, p.83). Butcher (2005) however believes that the negativity surrounding mass tourism is highly overstated and that solutions will not found in alternative tourisms and niche marketing projects, but rather in the integration of ethics into the tourism industry. Macleod (2004) agrees, explaining that if alternative tourism means having closer contact with locals and 'creating' nature trails, in the name of 'eco' and 'nature' tourism, is in fact more damaging to local populations and their environment. Moufakkir (2012) accentuates that it is not the number of tourists that are travelling that is the problem, nor is it the type of tourism that they choice. The core of the impact problem in tourism is about how tourists' behave during the tourism activity that denotes respect and protects the future of industry. Nevertheless, solutions to these impacts need to be addressed and support for a more ethical and responsible type of tourism is demonstrated via industry professionals such as ATR (Agir Pour un Tourisme Responsable; Action for Responsible Tourism) and ATES (Association pour le Tourisme Equitable et Solidaire; Association for Equitable and Interdependent Tourism) (Dornier et al., 2011) along with the UK's Tourism Concern and the Association of British Travel Agents (ABTA) who are active in promoting responsible tourism. 10 In 1999, the UNWTO provided a Global Code of Ethics (GCET) that was to provide a frame of reference for all stakeholders involved in tourism activity and that addressed the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts of tourism (see chapter 2). Associations such as Tourism Concern and websites such as Ethical Traveler encourage, inform and educate visitors along with Rough Guide - Better World, one of the travel industries most used travel guides and social networks enabling travellers to discuss, inform and recommend future like- minded travellers. Alternative tourisms are arguably one of the best resolutions for both local communities to benefit from the tourism industry and for the ever increasing conscientious consumers who are looking for a very different type of holiday experience to that of which comes with mass tourism. This is well summed up by the following quotes from Samuel Johnson and Gilbert

Keith Chesterton respectively.

"In travelling a man must carry knowledge with him, if he would bring home knowledge." The traveler sees what he sees, the tourist sees what he has come to see." (in Controversies in Tourism, 2012 p. 11) An important segment of the tourist market that has indicated their need for a more ethical and alternative type of tourism is the Youth and Student Travel Market. This segment is powerful, not only for the economic revenue that it generates (US$ 182 million, UNWTO,

2012) but for their influence on future travel and visitors of an ever increasing accessible

globe. Research carried out has demonstrated that the Youth and Student Travel Market are looking for discovery, emergence and a local experience (WYSE Travel Confederation, 2013) which resonates with the characteristics of ethical tourism (Lovelock & Lovelock, 2013), an alternative form of tourism that has been put in place to overcome the negative impacts that have been associated with irresponsible behavior. Understanding the role of ethics and how it is perceived in holiday destination choice will create marketing and business opportunities and hopefully provide a form of sustainability. These findings are important not only for the industry but also for the environmentalists, sociologists and politicians that are important stakeholders in the future of the tourism industry. 11

2. Research Aim, Methodology and Methods

The overall aim of this doctoral research therefore is to examine how the French Studentquotesdbs_dbs22.pdfusesText_28

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