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fourteenth amendment - rights guaranteed privileges and immunities

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The Constitution of the United States of America.

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1665

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT

RIGHTS GUARANTEED

PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF CITIZENSHIP,

DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL PROTECTION

CONTENTS

Page

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed ...................................................................................................1671

The Fourteenth Amendment and States" Rights ............................................................. 1671

Citizens of the United States ............................................................................................ 1671

Privileges or Immunities .................................................................................................... 1674

Due Process of Law ............................................................................................................1678

Generally ......................................................................................................................1678

Definitions ....................................................................................................................1679

''Person"" ................................................................................................................. 1679

''Property"" and Police Power ............................................................................... 1681

''Liberty"" ................................................................................................................ 1682

The Rise and Fall of Economic Substantive Due Process: Overview ...................... 1682

Regulation of Labor Conditions .................................................................................. 1689

Liberty of Contract ............................................................................................... 1689

Laws Regulating Working Conditions and Wages ............................................ 1693

Workers" Compensation Laws ............................................................................. 1696

Collective Bargaining ........................................................................................... 1697

Regulation of Business Enterprises: Price Controls ................................................. 1700

Types of Businesses That May be Regulated ..................................................... 1700

Substantive Review of Price Controls ................................................................ 1703

Early Limitations on Review ............................................................................... 1705

History of the Valuation Question ...................................................................... 1707

Regulation of Public Utilities and Common Carriers ............................................... 1710

In General ............................................................................................................. 1710

Compulsory Expenditures: Grade Crossings, and the Like .............................. 1711

Compellable Services ........................................................................................... 1712

Imposition of Statutory Liabilities and Penalties Upon Common Carriers .... 1715 Regulation of Businesses, Corporations, Professions, and Trades .......................... 1716

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1716

Laws Prohibiting Trusts, Restraint of Trade or Fraud ..................................... 1717 Banking, Wage Assignments and Garnishment ................................................ 1719

Insurance .............................................................................................................. 1720

Miscellaneous Businesses and Professions ........................................................ 1722

Protection of State Resources ..................................................................................... 1724

Oil and Gas ........................................................................................................... 1724

Protection of Property and Agricultural Crops .................................................. 1726

Water, Fish and Game ......................................................................................... 1727

Ownership of Real Property: Rights and Limitations .............................................. 1728

Zoning and Similar Actions ................................................................................. 1728

Estates, Succession, Abandoned Property .......................................................... 1730

Health, Safety, and Morals ......................................................................................... 1732

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1666AMENDMENT 14-RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed-Continued

Due Process of Law-Continued

Health ................................................................................................................... 1732

Safety .................................................................................................................... 1734

Morality ................................................................................................................. 1736

Vested and Remedial Rights ...................................................................................... 1736

State Control over Local Units of Government ......................................................... 1737

Taxing Power ............................................................................................................... 1738

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1738

Jurisdiction to Tax ...................................................................................................... 1742

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1742

Real Property ........................................................................................................ 1743

Tangible Personalty ............................................................................................. 1743

Intangible Personalty ........................................................................................... 1745

Transfer (Inheritance, Estate, Gift) Taxes ......................................................... 1748

Corporate Privilege Taxes ................................................................................... 1752

Individual Income Taxes ..................................................................................... 1753

Corporate Income Taxes: Foreign Corporations ................................................ 1754

Insurance Company Taxes .................................................................................. 1755

Procedure in Taxation ................................................................................................. 1756

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1756

Notice and Hearing in Relation to Taxes ........................................................... 1756

Notice and Hearing in Relation to Assessments ............................................... 1757

Collection of Taxes ............................................................................................... 1759

Sufficiency and Manner of Giving Notice ........................................................... 1761

Sufficiency of Remedy .......................................................................................... 1762

Laches ................................................................................................................... 1762

Eminent Domain ......................................................................................................... 1762

Fundamental Rights (Noneconomic Substantive Due Process) ............................... 1763

Development of the Right of Privacy .................................................................. 1763

Abortion ................................................................................................................ 1768

Privacy after Roe: Informational Privacy, Privacy of the Home or Personal

Autonomy? ......................................................................................................... 1778

Family Relationships ........................................................................................... 1787

Liberty Interests of the Retarded, Mentally Ill or Abnormal: Commitment

and Treatment .................................................................................................. 1789

''Right to Die"" ....................................................................................................... 1792

Procedural Due Process: Civil ........................................................................................... 1794

Generally ......................................................................................................................1794

Relevance of Historical Use ................................................................................. 1794

Non-Judicial Proceedings .................................................................................... 1795

The Requirements of Due Process ...................................................................... 1795

The Procedure Which Is Due Process ........................................................................ 1800

The Interests Protected: ''Life, Liberty and Property"" ...................................... 1800

The Property Interest .......................................................................................... 1800

The Liberty Interest ............................................................................................. 1806

Proceedings in Which Procedural Due Process Need Not Be Observed .......... 1809

When Process Is Due ........................................................................................... 1811

Jurisdiction ..................................................................................................................1817

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1817

In Personam Proceedings Against Individuals .................................................. 1818

Suing Out-of-State (Foreign) Corporations ........................................................ 1821

Actions in Rem: Proceedings Against Property ................................................. 1827

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1667AMENDMENT 14-RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed-Continued

Procedural Due Process: Civil-Continued

Quasi in Rem: Attachment Proceedings ............................................................. 1829

Actions in Rem: Estates, Trusts, Corporations .................................................. 1831

Notice: Service of Process .................................................................................... 1833

Power of the States to Regulate Procedure ............................................................... 1834

Generally ............................................................................................................... 1834

Commencement of Actions .................................................................................. 1835

Defenses ................................................................................................................ 1836

Costs, Damages, and Penalties ........................................................................... 1837

Statutes of Limitation .......................................................................................... 1838

Burden of Proof and Presumptions ..................................................................... 1840

Trials and Appeals ............................................................................................... 1844

Procedural Due Process: Criminal .................................................................................... 1844

Generally: The Principle of Fundamental Fairness ................................................. 1844

The Elements of Due Process ..................................................................................... 1846

Initiation of the Prosecution ................................................................................ 1846

Clarity in Criminal Statutes: The Void-for-Vagueness Doctrine ..................... 1846

Entrapment .......................................................................................................... 1851

Criminal Identification Process ........................................................................... 1852

Fair Trial .............................................................................................................. 1853

Prosecutorial Misconduct ..................................................................................... 1856

Proof, Burden of Proof, and Presumptions ......................................................... 1859

The Problem of the Incompetent or Insane Defendant or Convict .................. 1865

Guilty Pleas .......................................................................................................... 1866

Sentencing ............................................................................................................ 1868

Corrective Process: Appeals and Other Remedies ............................................. 1871

Rights of Prisoners ............................................................................................... 1873

Probation and Parole ........................................................................................... 1877

The Problem of the Juvenile Offender ............................................................... 1881

The Problem of Civil Commitment ..................................................................... 1884

Equal Protection of the Laws ............................................................................................ 1886

Scope and Application ................................................................................................. 1886

State Action .......................................................................................................... 1886

''Person"" ................................................................................................................. 1904

''Within Its Jurisdiction"" ...................................................................................... 1904

Equal Protection: Judging Classifications by Law ................................................... 1905

Traditional Standard: Restrained Review .......................................................... 1906

The New Standards: Active Review ................................................................... 1910

Testing Facially Neutral Classifications Which Impact on Minorities ................... 1916 Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Po-

lice Powers ....................................................................................................................... 1922

Taxation .......................................................................................................................1922

Classification for Purpose of Taxation ................................................................ 1923

Foreign Corporations and Nonresidents ............................................................ 1925

Income Taxes ........................................................................................................ 1926

Inheritance Taxes ................................................................................................. 1927

Motor Vehicle Taxes ............................................................................................. 1927

Property Taxes ..................................................................................................... 1928

Special Assessment .............................................................................................. 1930

Police Power Regulation ............................................................................................. 1930

Classification ........................................................................................................ 1930

Other Business and Employment Relations ............................................................. 1935

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1668AMENDMENT 14-RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 1. Rights Guaranteed-Continued

Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Po- lice Powers-Continued

Labor Relations .................................................................................................... 1935

Monopolies and Unfair Trade Practices ............................................................. 1936

Administrative Discretion ................................................................................... 1937

Social Welfare ....................................................................................................... 1937

Punishment of Crime ........................................................................................... 1939

Equal Protection and Race ................................................................................................ 1941

Overview ......................................................................................................................1941

Education .....................................................................................................................1942

Development and Application of ''Separate But Equal"" .................................... 1942

Brown v. Board of Education .............................................................................. 1943

Brown"s Aftermath ............................................................................................... 1944

Implementation of School Desegregation ........................................................... 1946

Northern Schools: Inter- and Intradistrict Desegregation ................................ 1948 Efforts to Curb Busing and Other Desegregation Remedies ............................ 1953

Termination of Court Supervision ...................................................................... 1955

Juries ............................................................................................................................ 1956

Capital Punishment .................................................................................................... 1959

Housing ........................................................................................................................1960

Other Areas of Discrimination ................................................................................... 1960

Transportation ...................................................................................................... 1960

Public Facilities .................................................................................................... 1961

Marriage ............................................................................................................... 1962

Judicial System .................................................................................................... 1962

Public Designation ............................................................................................... 1962

Public Accommodations ....................................................................................... 1962

Elections ................................................................................................................ 1963

Permissible Remedial Utilization of Racial Classifications ..................................... 1963

The New Equal Protection ................................................................................................. 1971

Classifications Meriting Close Scrutiny .................................................................... 1971

Alienage and Nationality ..................................................................................... 1971

Sex ......................................................................................................................... 1977

Illegitimacy ........................................................................................................... 1990

Fundamental Interests: The Political Process .......................................................... 1995

Voter Qualifications ............................................................................................. 1997

Access to the Ballot .............................................................................................. 2001

Apportionment and Districting ........................................................................... 2005

Counting and Weighing of Votes ........................................................................ 2015

The Right to Travel ..................................................................................................... 2016

Durational Residency Requirements .................................................................. 2017

Marriage and Familial Relations ............................................................................... 2020

Sexual Orientation ...................................................................................................... 2022

Poverty and Fundamental Interests: The Intersection of Due Process and Equal

Protection ................................................................................................................. 2023

Generally ............................................................................................................... 2023

Criminal Procedure .............................................................................................. 2025

The Criminal Sentence ........................................................................................ 2027

Voting .................................................................................................................... 2027

Access to Courts ................................................................................................... 2028

Educational Opportunity ..................................................................................... 2030

Abortion ................................................................................................................ 2032

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1669AMENDMENT 14-RIGHTS GUARANTEED

Section 2. Apportionment of Representation ........................................................................... 2033

Sections 3 and 4. Disqualification and Public Debt ................................................................ 2034

Section 5. Enforcement .............................................................................................................. 2036

Generally ............................................................................................................................. 2036

State Action ......................................................................................................................... 2038

Congressional Definition of Fourteenth Amendment Rights .......................................... 2041

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1671
1 Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). The controversy, political as well as constitutional, which this case stirred and still stirs, is exemplified and ana- lyzed in the material collected in S. K

UTLER, THEDREDSCOTTDECISION: LAW OR

POLITICS? (1967).

RIGHTS GUARANTEED

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT

SECTION1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privi- leges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, with- out due process of law; nor deny to any person within its juris- diction the equal protection of the laws.

THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT AND STATES" RIGHTS

Amendment of the Constitution during the post-Civil War Re- construction period resulted in a fundamental shift in the relation- ship between the Federal Government and the States. The Civil War had been fought over issues of States" rights, including the right to control the institution of slavery. In the wake of the war, the Congress submitted, and the States ratified, the Thirteenth Amendment (making slavery illegal), the Fourteenth Amendment (defining and granting broad rights of national citizenship), and the Fifteenth Amendment (forbidding racial discrimination in elec- tions). The Fourteenth Amendment was the most controversial and far-reaching of the three ''Reconstruction Amendments.""

CITIZENS OF THE UNITED STATES

The citizenship provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment may be seen as a repudiation of one of the more politically divisive cases of the nineteenth century. Under common law, free persons born within a State or nation were citizens thereof. In the Dred Scott Case, 1 however, Chief Justice Taney, writing for the Court, ruled that this rule did not apply to freed slaves. The Court held that United States citizenship was enjoyed by only two classes of indi- viduals: (1) white persons born in the United States as descendants

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1672

AMENDMENT 14-RIGHTS GUARANTEED

2 Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) at 404-06, 417-18, 419-20 (1857). 3 ''That all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude . . . shall have the same right[s] . . . ."" Ch. 31, 14 Stat. 27. 4 The proposed amendment as it passed the House contained no such provision, and it was decided in the Senate to include language like that finally adopted. C ONG. GLOBE, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2560, 2768-69, 2869 (1866). The sponsor of the language said: ''This amendment which I have offered is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already, that every person born within the limits of the United States, and subject to their jurisdiction, is . . . a citizen of the United States."" Id. at 2890. The legislative history is discussed at some length in Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 282-86 (1967) (Justice Harlan dissenting). 5 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 688 (1898). 6 ''All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the juris- diction thereof, are citizens of the United States and the State wherein they reside."" 7 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649 (1898). 8

169 U.S. at 682 (these are recognized exceptions to the common-law rule of ac-

quired citizenship by birth). 9

169 U.S. at 680-82; Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U.S. 94, 99 (1884).

of ''persons, who were at the time of the adoption of the Constitu- tion recognized as citizens in the several States and [who] became also citizens of this new political body,"" the United States of Amer- ica, and (2) those who, having been ''born outside the dominions of the United States,"" had migrated thereto and been naturalized therein. Freed slaves fell into neither of these categories. The Court further held that, although a State could confer state citizenship upon whomever it chose, it could not make the re- cipient of such status a citizen of the United States. Thus, the ''Negro,"" as an enslaved race, was ineligible to attain United States citizenship, either from a State or by virtue of birth in the United States. Even a free man descended from a Negro residing as a free man in one of the States at the date of ratification of the Constitu- tion was held ineligible for citizenship. 2

Congress subsequently re-

pudiated this concept of citizenship, first in section 1 of the Civil

Rights Act of 1866

3 and then in section 1 of the Fourteenth

Amendment.

4 In doing so, Congress set aside the Dred Scott hold- ing, and restored the traditional precepts of citizenship by birth. 5

Based on the first sentence of section 1,

6 the Court has held that a child born in the United States of Chinese parents who werequotesdbs_dbs17.pdfusesText_23
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