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Conflict,statefailureandurban

transformationintheEasternCongolese periphery.

ThecaseofGoma.

KarenBüscher

GhentUniversity

November2011

Thesispromoter:KoenVlassenroot

CoͲpromoter:ThéodoreTrefon

I

Content

ContentI

DutchsummaryV

Listoffigures,maps,picturesandtablesIX

ListofabbreviationsXI

AcknowledgementsXIII

Generalintroduction1

1.1.2.'NonͲstate'urbandevelopment?8

1.1.3.Informality10

1.2.2.TheurbanborderlandͲangle15

1.3.1.Governance17

1.3.2.Navigation19

1.3.3.Identity21

1.3.4.Landscape23

1.4.Outlineofthethesis25

2.Methodology27

2.1.ChoiceofthecaseͲstudy29

2.2.Anurban'monography'asmethod30

2.3.Ethnographicresearchmethods31

2.3.1.LongͲtermstaysin'thefield'31

2.3.2.Fieldworktechniques32

2.5.2.Navigatingahighlycontestedspace40

2.5.3.Access41

3.Historicalevolution45

3.1.Introduction47

3.3.Theemergenceofacolonialborderpost51

II

3.11.Intensificationofviolence76

4.Goma'scurrentcityprofile83

4.1.Introduction85

urbanisation96

4.2.2.Administrativeorganisation99

economy102

4.2.4.Urbanisationandhousingservices108

education111

4.2.6.SecurityandJustice114

5.Goma:Cityofopportunity117

5.1.Introduction119

development122 coltan/cassiteritetrade126

5.3.1.Gomaasahumanitarianspace133

5.3.3.Reorderingurbanspace139

5.3.4.NonͲstateurbangovernance140

5.5.Concludingremarks149

6.Goma:Cityofcontest151

6.1.Introduction153

6.2.Fragmentedurbangovernance156

6.2.1.Afragmentedstate156

6.2.2.Fragmentedsociety158

6.2.3.Thepowerofethnicity161

6.2.4.Navigatingthefragmentedcity165

6.4.TheNgezayocase177

6.4.1.Contestedautochthony178

6.5.Concludingremarks181

7.Goma:Cityofrebellion183

III

7.1.Introduction185

7.2.Cityofcounterforce188

7.2.2.Entrypointofforeigninfluence190

7.2.3.Rebellionasastateofmind192

7.3.1.Urban'rebelgovernance'193

7.3.2.Economicintegration198

7.4.Theurbanlogicofviolence207

7.5.ConcludingRemarks215

8.Goma:Cityofrefuge217

8.1.Introduction219

8.2.Goma'sevolutionintoazoneofrefuge223

8.2.2.Thesafecity224

8.5.Concludingremarks242

9.Goma:Thecityasanurbanborderland245

9.1.Introduction246

9.2.Theurbanborderland251

9.4.Bordergenerating'risks'anddangers267

9.4.2.Spiesandinfiltratorsontheborder269

9.5.Concludingremarks272

Generalconclusion277

References291

V

Dutchsummary

antropologischestedelijkeetnografie vertrekkendevandestadGomazoalszezichopde dagvanvandaagmanifesteert. kanttekijkenhoedezeevoluties procesvanstaatsvervalnieuwe,

Afrika.Inhetlichtvan

stedelijkheidinCongobeperkt natiestaatenbuitendedirecteinvloed vandecentraleoverheid.Zebehandelt conflictinOostCongo. vertrektvaneen zoneswaarin VI enquêtes,diewerden Goma. eentheoretischeinleidingdieeen voorgesteld.In gepercipieerd doorhaarinwoners. hoofdstukisopgebouwdrondhetbeeldvande stadalseenzonevanpolitiekeensocioͲ vanderebellenbewegingtussen steltdestadvooralseen hoedanigheidvandestadals gewapendeconflictenstaatsverzwakking. enaandeanderekant eendynamisch VII eerderdanvan op politieke,economischeensocialeexclusie. IX

Listoffigures,maps,picturesandtables

Map1:EthniccommunitiesoftheKivu

provinces50

Map4:CitiesandcentresofZaïrein199280

Map5A:Gomain196090

Map5B:Gomain1197091

Map5C:Gomain198892

Map5D:Gomain199393

Map5E:Gomain200394

Picture2:CrateroftheNyiragongo72

Rwanda85

Picture4:SatellitepictureofGomatown86

Picture7:MONUSCOsoldiers136

Picture8:HotelIhusi138

Picture11:MotorͲtaxidrivers167

Picture12:Gomavillepropreinaction175

Picture13:IDPcampnearGoma225

Picture

Picture17:Birerestores258

Table3:

ofGomain2008110 XI

Listofabbreviations

B.E.I.Bureaud'EcnomieetIndustrie

C.I.CitéIndgène

C.U.Circonscriptionurbaine

CCCMCampCoordinationandCampManagement

CEOChiefExecutiveOfficer

CIMCommerceͲIndustrieetMines

CNKIComitéNationalduKivu

CNSNationalSovereignConference

pourladémocratiechrétienne

DCMPDaringclubMotemaPembe

DGMDirectionGénéraledeMigration

DRC

DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo

EACEastAfricanCommunity

EUEuropeanUnion

CDFFrancCongolais

FECFéderationdesEntreprisesduCongo

RWFRwandanFranc

GDPgrossdomesticproduct

ICCInternationalCriminalCourt

ICGInternationalCrisis

Group

IDPInternallydisplacedpeople

LDFLocalDefenceForces

MBCMiningandBusinessCommodities

MIBMissiond'ImmigrationBanyaruandaise

MLCMouvementdeLibérationduCongo

MONUSCOUnited

RepublicoftheCongo

MPCMouvementdesPatriotesCongolais

NGONonGovernementalOrganisation

OTRACOOfficedestransportsauCongo

OVDOfficedesVoiriesetDrainage

XII

PARECOPatriotesResistantsCongolais

PMPoliceMilitaire

PMEPetitsetmoyensentreprises

PNCPoliceNationaleCongolaise

RCDͲMLRassemblementCongolaispourla

DémocratieͲMovementde

Liberation

REGIDESORégiededistributiond'eau

RPFRwandanPatrioticFront

RRARwandaRevenueAuthority

RVARégiedesVoiesAérennes

SADCSouthAfricanDevelopmentCommunity

SIMAKSociétéImmobilièreauKivu

SOMKIVUSociétéMinièreduKivu

TPDToutpourlaPaixetleDéveloppement

UNUnitedNations

UNDPUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNHABITATUnitedNationsHABITAT

UNICEFUnitedNationsChildren'sFund

UNIGOMUniversité

deGoma

UPCUniondesPatriotesCongolais

USDUSDollar

XIII

Acknowledgements

home.Iwas the city. Ghent ofmanypeopleinBelgiumaswellasintheDRC. wishtothankhimfor supervisorThéodoreTrefonforhis alwaysmost welcome. oftheULPGLandUNIGOMuniversitiesin

Charles,

mydearfriendRichardBongenia.His XIV

BackinBelgium,Iwishto

lastingenthusiasticsupport.

Icannotforgettomentionmyfriendsandfamily

fortheirsupport,thankyouFrederik, lastbutnotleast: timeshe alsoforintroducingmetoCongomanyyearsago.

Ghent,November7,2011

Generalintroduction

Generalintroduction3

ethnographythatstartsfromthe dynamics urbanism 1

2001;Bealletal.2010;

fascinatingproductionof failure,experiencing"seriousspatial secondone,tothe recent misanthropy" 1 cultural,economicandpoliticaldynamics

Wirthdefinedthecityasarelative

urbanity(Sassen2010).Asitis dissertation,sticktothesenotions.

Generalintroduction4

createtheirownurbanformsand developmentnorms'(Locatelli&Nugent2009). thebackgroundofWesternurban twentyyears.The integrationof'African'insightsintoglobal contemporaryurbantheory.Abdoumaliq ofscholarssuchasMyers, whosefocusmaynotbeonAfrica"(Myers2011:7) box, globalunderstandingsof'peripheral'Ͳ'border'Ͳ or'conflictͲurbanity'.Assuch,this researchdoesnotonly millennium,onecould ofthesestudies onwardspartly

Generalintroduction5

backgroundofchaosandcrisis,andonthe otherhandpresentingthemintermsof dissertation formsamodestcontributiontofillthesegaps. the theemergenceofdynamic onehandtoshedlighton thattheseperipheralborder geographicsense;thenotionofthe'border town'or'urbanborderland'willbeintegrated furtherarguethat,rather forms main

1.1. SocioͲpoliticalsetting:theurbandimensionofcrisisand

conflict

1.1.1. Investigatingtheurbanimpactoflocalconflictdynamics

Generalintroduction6

theiranalysis.Itisoutofthescopeofthis set impactofviolentconflictonlocalsocial andeconomicprocesses(Vlassenroot2006a; transformativeforceofviolentconflict, highlightingthewaysinwhichwarhasreshaped the intheanalysingofconflict 2 .TheoriginalityofthisPhDthuslies perspective. duringrecentyearsmainlytook 3 .However,without indirectlyabsorbmuchoftheimpact andfalloutfromcontemporaryconflictandwar displacement. 2 3

Nkundatemporarilytookcontroloverthecity.

Generalintroduction7

Monrovia,FreetownandMogadishu

forexample,see:Hoffman2007;Menkhaus2007; realityofsome

415).However,

facedaprofounddegradationof bethefocusofinterestinmyresearch.The particularcontextofthisresearchisoneofa

Althoughstarting

role,positionandfunctionofthecity.

Thesituation

andhasbecomeaconditionofeverydaylife.

Intryingtounderstandthe

thatpresent

Processesofstatedeclineand

Generalintroduction8

regionaldynamicsandglobaltrends.

1.1.2. 'NonͲstate'urbandevelopment?

alotaboutstatecapacity(Beall2008).The visible.However,when servicesfor theinformalcharacter :8).

Mathews&Solomon2001;Reno2006;

Young&Turner1985;Zartman1995).The

topicofcritical theground'(Hagmann&Hoehne opinionthatwehavetolook

Generalintroduction9

4 administrativeapparatuses,or as deliverbasicpublicservicesand onregulatory trueforCongo.Theprocessofthe relationships asbytakingoverthestate's

Thesedynamicsprovokedaradical

worththroughthedifferent resources"(Raeymaekers2005:4). 4 workedoutwellforthe &Daloz1999).

Generalintroduction10

'order'in thestateinurbanisationandurbanismand itsrelationshiptootherinvolvedactors economic ofurban

1.1.3. Informality

sectorinurbanAfricahasbeenthetopicof numerousacademicwritings,initiallymostof

Abbott&

definedastakingplaceoutsidestate making closelinkswiththestate,andviceversa.

Therealityofinformalformsofurban

Generalintroduction11

nonͲstateactors,insomeAfricancities

Facedwiththisreality,

2010).

becomeirrelevantin restructuring"(Meagher2010: thekeyisnottheboundarybetween politicsdevelopoutsidetheofficial regulatoryframework,andontheotherhandhow greatdiversityofinformalactivities,

Actingonagivenpoliticalsituation

ofurbanspace)liesinthecoloniallegacy, 5 .Assuch,theproductionof 5

Europeanurbanplanners.

Generalintroduction12

realitiesandexperiences.Iwilldemonstrate thatinformalityiscrucialtounderstand

Classicurbaninfrastructurethatcameto

atotaldecayhasbeenreplacedbya'parallel 6 ,asinAfricancities configuration. of urbancontextsare analysisofurbantransformationsinGoma.

2004;DeVillers2002;DeVillers

optimism'and'Ͳpessimism'reͲenters thescenehere,asafinaldebateonurban 7 ,thequestion 6

Meagher,forexample(Meagher1995).Some

scholarshavefurtherexpandedthisreasoning

2001;MacGaffey1991;Raeymaekers2009b).

7

Generalintroduction13

ofadwindling precariousconditions.

1.2. PoliticoͲgeographiclocation:thecentralroleoftheperiphery

1.2.1. Centralityofthemargins:achangingurbanorder?

urbanpopulation)orlessinteresting: thesearetheurbancentresthatarecurrently debateson totalementméconnus" (Bertrand&Dubresson1997:10). (transͲ)nationally(Bertrand In themactuallyare),removedfromthepolitical centreofthenation,oftensituatedliterally geographicallocationofthecity.

Fromitsperipherallocation,the

entrepreneurialinnovation.

Generalintroduction14

increasingeconomic mayargue becomingthenewleading bythecontextofstatefailureas formsanimportant thenationͲstate.The

EasternCongothis

centre. particularstatusquotesdbs_dbs27.pdfusesText_33

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