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Guide to Hydrological PracticesVolume I

Hydrology ñ From Measurement to

Hydrological Information

WMO-No. 168

Guide to

Hydrological Practices

Volume I

Hydrology ñ From Measurement to

Hydrological Information

WMO-No. 168

Sixth edition

2008

WMO-No. 168

© World Meteorological Organization, 2008

The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided

that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, repro-

duce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to:

Chairperson, Publications Board

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03

P.O. Box No. 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 40

CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland E-mail: publications@wmo.int

ISBN 978-92-63-10168-6

NOTE

The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not

imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of WMO concerning the legal

status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers

or boundaries.

Opinions expressed in WMO publications are those of the authors and do not necessarily reß ect those of WMO.

The mention of speciÞ c companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO

in preference to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised.

Supplement

No.DatedInserted

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VOLUME I

TABLE FOR NOTING SUPPLEMENTS RECEIVED

CONTENTS

PREFACE ........................................................................ ................................................................... xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ ........................................... xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ .................................. I.1-1

1.1 Background ........................................................................

................................................... I.1-1

1.2 Scope ........................................................................

............................................................ I.1-1

1.3 Contents of the Guide ........................................................................

................................... I.1-2

1.4 The Hydrological Operational Multipurpose System .............................................................. I.1-4

References and further reading ........................................................................

.................................. I.1-4

CHAPTER 2. METHODS OF OBSERVATION ........................................................................

.............. I.2-1

2.1 Introduction - The hydrological cycle as the subject of observation ....................................... I.2-1

2.2 Water resources information systems ........................................................................

............. I.2-2

2.2.1 Need for data and information ........................................................................

..... I.2-2

2.2.2 Hydrological information systems ........................................................................

. I.2-3

2.2.3 Uses of water resources information ...................................................................... I.2-5

2.2.4 Types of water resources information .................................................................... I.2-5

2.3 Hydrological symbols, codes and accuracy of measurements ................................................. I.2-7

2.3.1 Units and symbols ........................................................................

........................ I.2-7

2.3.2 Hydrological codes ........................................................................

....................... I.2-7

2.3.3 Accuracy of hydrological measurements ............................................................... I.2-12

2.3.4 Calibration of instruments ........................................................................

............ I.2-17

2.4 Design and evaluation of hydrological networks .................................................................... I.2-18

2.4.1 General concepts of network design ..................................................................... I.2-18

2.4.2 Density of stations for a network ........................................................................

... I.2-24

2.4.3 Speci c requirements for water quality ................................................................. I.2-28

2.4.4 Operational data acquisition networks .................................................................. I.2-34

2.4.5 Network-strategy options ........................................................................

............. I.2-34

2.5 Data collection ........................................................................

.............................................. I.2-35

2.5.1 Site selection ........................................................................

................................ I.2-35

2.5.2 Station identi cation........................................................................

...................... I.2-35

2.5.3 Frequency and timing of station visits ................................................................... I.2-39

2.5.4 Maintenance of sites ........................................................................

..................... I.2-40

2.5.5 Observation ........................................................................

.................................. I.2-40

2.5.6 Transmission systems ........................................................................

.................... I.2-43

2.5.7 Water-quality monitoring ........................................................................

.............. I.2-44

2.5.8 Special data collection ........................................................................

.................. I.2-46

2.6 Measurement of physiographic characteristics ....................................................................... I.2-47

2.6.1 General ........................................................................

........................................ I.2-47

2.6.2 Reference systems and data frameworks ............................................................... I.2-47

2.6.3 Point measurements ........................................................................

..................... I.2-48

2.6.4 Linear measurements ........................................................................

.................... I.2-49

2.6.5 Area measurements ........................................................................

....................... I.2-52

2.6.6 Volumetric measurements ........................................................................

............. I.2-55

2.6.7 Geographical Information Systems ....................................................................... I.2-55

2.6.8 Emerging technologies ........................................................................

................. I.2-56

2.6.9 Staff training ........................................................................

................................. I.2-57

References and further reading ........................................................................

.................................. I.2-58Page

GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICESvi

Page

CHAPTER 3. PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT ................................................................................. I.3-1

3.1 General requirements: accuracy and precision ....................................................................... I.3-1

3.2 Raingauge location ................................................................................................................ I.3-1

3.3 Non-recording raingauges .................................................................................................... I.3-3

3.3.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.3-3

3.3.2 Standard raingauges ............................................................................................. I.3-3

3.3.3 Storage raingauges ............................................................................................... I.3-3

3.3.4 Methods of measurement ..................................................................................... I.3-4

3.3.5 Errors and accuracy of readings ............................................................................ I.3-4

3.3.6 Correction of systematic errors .............................................................................. I.3-5

3.4 Recording raingauges ............................................................................................................ I.3-7

3.4.1 Weighingñrecording gauge .................................................................................. I.3-7

3.4.2 Float gauge .......................................................................................................... I.3-7

3.4.3 Tipping-bucket gauge .......................................................................................... I.3-8

3.4.4 Rainfall-intensity recorder ..................................................................................... I.3-8

3.4.5 Distrometers ......................................................................................................... I.3-8

3.4.6 Acoustic type ........................................................................................................ I.3-9

3.4.7 Methods of recording the data ............................................................................. I.3-9

3.5 Snowfall and hail ................................................................................................................... I.3-9

3.5.1 Depth of snowfall ................................................................................................. I.3-9

3.5.2 Water equivalent of snowfall ................................................................................. I.3-10

3.5.3 Snow cover ........................................................................................................... I.3-10

3.5.4 Hail pads .............................................................................................................. I.3-15

3.6 Rainfall estimation from catchment water balance ................................................................. I.3-15

3.7 Observation of precipitation by radar .................................................................................... I.3-15

3.7.1 Uses of radar in hydrology .................................................................................... I.3-15

3.7.2 The radarñrainfall equation ................................................................................... I.3-15

3.7.3 Factors affecting measurements ............................................................................ I.3-16

3.7.4 Snow and hail ....................................................................................................... I.3-18

3.7.5 Scanning strategy ................................................................................................. I.3-19

3.7.6 Summary of accuracy considerations .................................................................... I.3-19

3.7.7 Doppler radar ....................................................................................................... I.3-19

3.7.8 Multi-parameter radar .......................................................................................... I.3-20

3.8 Ground-based radar and rainfall monitoring techniques ........................................................ I.3-20

3.9 Operational radar networks ................................................................................................... I.3-21

3.10 Dual frequency microwave link attenuation measurements of rainfall .................................... I.3-21

3.11 Observations of rainfall by satellite ........................................................................................ I.3-22

3.11.1 Basics ................................................................................................................... I.3-22

3.11.2 Visible and infra-red .............................................................................................. I.3-22

3.11.3 Passive microwave ................................................................................................ I.3-23

3.11.4 Active microwave (rain radar; Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission) .................. I.3-24

3.11.5 Summary of accuracy considerations ..................................................................... I.3-25

3.12 Remote-sensing measurements of snow ................................................................................ I.3-25

3.13 Satellite remote-sensing of snow cover .................................................................................. I.3-26

3.14 Operational satellites ............................................................................................................. I.3-27

3.15 Dew ............................................................................................................................. I.3-28

3.16 Sampling for precipitation quality ......................................................................................... I.3-29

3.16.1 Rain and snow collectors ...................................................................................... I.3-29

3.16.2 Dry deposition collection ...................................................................................... I.3-29

3.17 Assimilation of rainfall into hydrological and hydraulic models: combining and assessingdata from different sources .................................................................................................... I.3-29

3.18 Global Precipitation Climatology Project ............................................................................... I.3-30

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.3-30

CONTENTSvii

Page

CHAPTER 4. EVAPORATION, EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND SOIL MOITURE ................................... I.4-1

4.1 Evaporation, evapotranspiration and interception ................................................................... I.4-1

4.1.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.4-1

4.1.2 De nitions ............................................................................................................. I.4-1

4.1.3 Measurement of evaporation ................................................................................ I.4-2

4.1.4 Measurement of evapotranspiration ..................................................................... I.4-6

4.1.5 Remote-sensing measurements of evaporation and evapotranspiration variables .. I.4-7

4.2 Estimating evaporation from free surfaces ............................................................................. I.4-8

4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.4-8

4.2.2 Water budget ....................................................................................................... I.4-8

4.2.3 Energy budget ...................................................................................................... I.4-8

4.2.4 Mass-transfer method ........................................................................................... I.4-10

4.2.5 Combination of aerodynamic and energy-balance methods ................................. I.4-11

4.2.6 Extrapolation from pan measurements ................................................................. I.4-12

4.2.7 Empirical formulae ................................................................................................ I.4-14

4.3 Evapotranspiration from drainage basins ............................................................................... I.4-16

4.3.1 General ................................................................................................................. I.4-16

4.3.2 Water-budget method .......................................................................................... I.4-17

4.3.3 Energy-budget method ........................................................................................ I.4-17

4.3.4 Aerodynamic approach ......................................................................................... I.4-18

4.3.5 PenmanñMonteith method ................................................................................... I.4-18

4.3.6 PriestleyñTaylor (radiation) method ....................................................................... I.4-19

4.3.7 Complementary method ...................................................................................... I.4-19

4.3.8 Crop coef cient and reference evapotranspiration method ................................... I.4-20

4.3.9 Large aperture scintillometer ................................................................................ I.4-20

4.4 Evaporation reduction ........................................................................................................... I.4-20

4.4.1 From free surfaces ................................................................................................ I.4-20

4.4.2 From soil surface ................................................................................................... I.4-21

4.5 Soil moisture measurement ................................................................................................... I.4-21

4.5.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.4-21

4.5.2 Quantitative methods ........................................................................................... I.4-22

4.5.3 Qualitative methods ............................................................................................. I.4-28

4.5.4 Remote-sensing ..................................................................................................... I.4-29

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.4-30

CHAPTER 5. SURFACE WATER QUANTITY AND SEDIMENT MEASUREMENT ................................. I.5.1

5.1 Water levels of rivers, lakes and reservoirs .............................................................................. I.5-1

5.1.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.5-1

5.1.2 Gauges for measurement of stage ........................................................................ I.5-1

5.1.3 Procedures for measurement of stage ................................................................... I.5-2

5.1.4 Frequency of stage measurement ......................................................................... I.5-2

5.2 Ice on rivers, lakes and reservoirs ........................................................................................... I.5-3

5.2.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.5-3

5.2.2 Elements of ice regime .......................................................................................... I.5-3

5.2.3 Methods of observation ........................................................................................ I.5-3

5.2.4 Times and frequency of observations .................................................................... I.5-4

5.2.5 Accuracy of measurement .................................................................................... I.5-4

5.3 Discharge measurements and computation ........................................................................... I.5-4

5.3.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.5-4

5.3.2 Measurement of discharge by current meters ....................................................... I.5-4

5.3.3 Measurement of discharge by the oat method .................................................... I.5-9

5.3.4 Measurement of discharge by dilution methods ................................................... I.5-10

5.3.5 Computations of discharge by indirect methods ................................................... I.5-12

GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICESviii

Page

5.3.6 Measurement of discharge under dif cult conditions ............................................ I.5-13

5.3.7 Non-traditional methods of stream gauging ......................................................... I.5-16

5.4 Stream-gauging stations ........................................................................................................ I.5-20

5.4.1 Purpose of stream-gauging stations ...................................................................... I.5-20

5.4.2 Selection of site .................................................................................................... I.5-21

5.4.3 Stage-discharge controls ....................................................................................... I.5-21

5.4.4 Measuring structures ............................................................................................ I.5-21

5.4.5 Stage-discharge relationships ................................................................................ I.5-23

5.4.6 Computation of mean gauge height of a discharge measurement ........................ I.5-24

5.5 Sediment discharge and yield ................................................................................................ I.5-24

5.5.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.5-24

5.5.2 Selection of site .................................................................................................... I.5-25

5.5.3 Measurement of suspended-sediment discharge ................................................... I.5-25

5.5.4 Measurement of bed-material discharge ............................................................... I.5-27

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.5-28

CHAPTER 6. GROUNDWATER .......................................................................................................... I.6-1

6.1 General ............................................................................................................................. I.6-1

6.2 Occurrence of groundwater .................................................................................................. I.6-1

6.2.1 Water-bearing geological units ............................................................................. I.6-1

6.2.2 Development of a hydrogeologic framework ........................................................ I.6-2

6.3 Observation wells .................................................................................................................. I.6-5

6.3.1 Installation of observation wells ............................................................................ I.6-5

6.3.2 Testing of observation wells .................................................................................. I.6-11

6.3.3 Sealing and lling of abandoned wells .................................................................. I.6-11

6.4 Groundwater-level measurements and observation well networks ......................................... I.6-11

6.4.1 Instruments and methods of observation .............................................................. I.6-11

6.5 Aquifer and con ning-bed hydraulic properties ..................................................................... I.6-18

6.5.1 Hydraulic parameters ............................................................................................ I.6-18

6.5.2 Overview of common eld methods to determine hydraulic parameters ............... I.6-20

6.6 Recharge and discharge, sources and sinks in a groundwater system ..................................... I.6-21

6.6.1 Recharge from precipitation ................................................................................. I.6-22

6.6.2 Groundwaterñsurface water relationships ............................................................. I.6-22

6.6.3 Well pumpage ...................................................................................................... I.6-23

6.7 Use of data in groundwater models ....................................................................................... I.6-23

6.8 Remote-sensing ..................................................................................................................... I.6-23

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.6-24

CHAPTER 7. WATER QUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS .......................................................... I.7-1

7.1 General ............................................................................................................................. I.7-1

7.2 Speci c requirements for water-quality monitoring ............................................................... I.7-1

7.2.1 Water-quality parameters ...................................................................................... I.7-1

7.2.2 Surface-water quality ............................................................................................ I.7-1

7.2.3 Precipitation quality .............................................................................................. I.7-3

7.2.4 Groundwater quality ............................................................................................. I.7-4

7.2.5 Sediment quality .................................................................................................. I.7-5

7.3 Sampling methods ................................................................................................................ I.7-5

7.3.1 Types of water samples ......................................................................................... I.7-6

7.3.2 Collecting a representative water sample .............................................................. I.7-6

7.3.3 Sampling for the analysis of water stable isotopes ................................................. I.7-6

7.3.4 Radioactivity measurement ................................................................................... I.7-7

7.3.5 Field sampling equipment and techniques ............................................................. I.7-7

CONTENTSix

Page

7.4 Preparation for eld trips ........................................................................................................ I.7-10

7.4.1 General preparation .............................................................................................. I.7-10

7.4.2 Selection of sample volumes ................................................................................. I.7-10

7.4.3 Checklist prior to eld trip .................................................................................... I.7-10

7.5 Field measurements .............................................................................................................. I.7-10

7.5.1 Automatic monitoring .......................................................................................... I.7-10

7.5.2 Field-measured parameters .................................................................................... I.7-10

7.6 Biomonitoring and sampling for biological analysis ............................................................... I.7-13

7.6.1 Microbilogical analysis .......................................................................................... I.7-14

7.6.2 Macrobiota ........................................................................................................... I.7-15

7.6.3 Biochemical oxygen demand ................................................................................ I.7-15

7.7 Field ltration and preservation procedures ........................................................................... I.7-17

7.7.1 Filtration ............................................................................................................... I.7-17

7.7.2 Preservation techniques ........................................................................................ I.7-18

7.8 Remote-sensing and surface-quality water ............................................................................. I.7-19

7.8.1 Water-quality study in the visible and infra-red domain ......................................... I.7-19

7.8.2 Water-quality study in the microwave domain ...................................................... I.7-20

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.7-20

CHAPTER 8. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IN HYDROMETRY ............................................................ I.8-1

8.1 General practices ................................................................................................................... I.8-1

8.2 Safety at recording stations ................................................................................................... I.8-1

8.2.1 Access .................................................................................................................. I.8-1

8.2.2 Platforms .............................................................................................................. I.8-1

8.2.3 Wells ..................................................................................................................... I.8-1

8.3 Safety precautions when working from bridges ..................................................................... I.8-1

8.3.1 Traf c hazards ...................................................................................................... I.8-2

8.3.2 Hazards from suspended equipment ..................................................................... I.8-2

8.4 Safety precautions while wading ........................................................................................... I.8-2

8.4.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.8-2

8.4.2 Assessing the situation .......................................................................................... I.8-2

8.4.3 Wearing of life jackets ........................................................................................... I.8-2

8.4.4 Safety lines and taglines ........................................................................................ I.8-2

8.4.5 Wading technique ................................................................................................ I.8-2

8.4.6 In case of mishap .................................................................................................. I.8-2

8.5 Safety precautions while working from boats ........................................................................ I.8-3

8.5.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.8-3

8.5.2 Life jackets and safety equipment ......................................................................... I.8-3

8.5.3 Use of taglines ...................................................................................................... I.8-3

8.5.4 Use of dinghies ..................................................................................................... I.8-3

8.6 Safety precautions when working with cableways ................................................................. I.8-4

8.7 Safety precautions when handling equipment ....................................................................... I.8-4

8.7.1 Surveying ............................................................................................................. I.8-4

8.7.2 Chainsaws ............................................................................................................ I.8-4

8.7.3 Electrical equipment ............................................................................................. I.8-4

8.7.4 Power tools .......................................................................................................... I.8-4

8.7.5 Protective clothing and safety equipment ............................................................. I.8-4

8.7.6 Radioactive equipment ......................................................................................... I.8-4

8.7.7 Safety aspects of groundwater monitoring ............................................................ I.8-5

8.7.8 Dust menace ........................................................................................................ I.8-5

8.8 Safety precautions when handling chemicals ......................................................................... I.8-5

8.9 Special precautions for cold conditions .................................................................................. I.8-6

GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICESx

Page

8.9.1 Hypothermia (exposure) ....................................................................................... I.8-6

8.9.2 Frostbite ............................................................................................................... I.8-6

8.9.3 Working on ice-cold lakes and streams .................................................................. I.8-6

8.9.4 Working in mountainous areas .............................................................................. I.8-7

8.9.5 Cold-water survival ............................................................................................... I.8-7

8.10 Special precautions for hot conditions ................................................................................... I.8-7

8.10.1 Heatstroke (hyperthermia) .................................................................................... I.8-7

8.10.2 Sunburn ............................................................................................................... I.8-8

8.11 Travel and transport .............................................................................................................. I.8-8

8.11.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.8-8

8.11.2 Helicopters ........................................................................................................... I.8-8

8.11.3 Motor vehicles ...................................................................................................... I.8-8

8.12 Survival kits and rations ......................................................................................................... I.8-9

8.13 Other hazards ....................................................................................................................... I.8-10

References and further reading .......................................................................................................... I.8-10

CHAPTER 9. DATA PROCESSING AND QUALITY CONTROL ............................................................ I.9-1

9.1 General ............................................................................................................................. I.9-1

9.2 Principles, conventions and standards ................................................................................... I.9-1

9.2.1 Conservatism, evidence and guesswork ................................................................ I.9-1

9.2.2 Data accuracy standards and requirements ........................................................... I.9-1

9.3 Coding ............................................................................................................................. I.9-3

9.3.1 General ................................................................................................................ I.9-3

9.3.2 Developing codes ................................................................................................. I.9-3

9.3.3 Location codes ..................................................................................................... I.9-3

9.3.4 Variable (parameter) codes ................................................................................... I.9-4

9.3.5 Data quali cation codes ....................................................................................... I.9-4

9.3.6 Missing data codes ............................................................................................... I.9-4

9.3.7 Transmission codes ............................................................................................... I.9-4

9.3.8 Geographical Information Systems ....................................................................... I.9-4

9.4 Data capture ......................................................................................................................... I.9-5

9.4.1 Key entry .............................................................................................................. I.9-5

9.4.2 Capturing chart data ............................................................................................ I.9-5

9.4.3 Punched-tape data ............................................................................................... I.9-6

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