[PDF] COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON CYBERCRIME - Draft February 2013

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Comprehensive Study

on Cybercrime

Draft - February 2013

Front cover photo credits (left to right):

©iStockphoto.com/TommL

©iStockphoto.com/mikewesson

©iStockphoto.com/polygraphus

UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME

Vienna

Comprehensive Study

on

Cybercrime

Draft

February 2013

UNITED NATIONS

New York, 2013

© United Nations, February 2013. All rights reserved worldwide.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Study team:

Consultants:

DISCLAIMERS

iii

.................................................................................................................................... v

................................................................................................................................... ix

...................................................................................................... xi

.................................................................................................................. xvii

1.1. The global connectivity revolution............................................................................................... 1

1.2. Contemporary cybercrime ............................................................................................................. 4

1.3. Cybercrime as a growing challenge .............................................................................................. 6

1.4. Describing cybercrime.................................................................................................................. 11

2.1. Measuring cybercrime ....................................................................................................................... 23

2.2. The global cybercrime picture ......................................................................................................... 25

2.3. Cybercrime perpetrators ................................................................................................................... 39

3.1. Introduction - The role of law ........................................................................................................ 51

3.2. Divergence and harmonization of laws ......................................................................................... 56

3.3. Overview of international and regional instruments ................................................................... 63

3.4. Implementing multilateral instruments at the national level ...................................................... 72

4.1. Criminalization overview .................................................................................................................. 77

4.2. Analysis of specific offenses ............................................................................................................ 81

4.3. International human rights law and criminalization .................................................................. 107

iv CHAPTER FIVE: LAW ENFORCEMENT AND INVESTIGATIONS .. 117 5.1.

Law enforcement and cybercrime ................................................................................................. 117

5.2.

Investigative powers overview ....................................................................................................... 122

5.3.

Privacy and investigative measures ............................................................................................... 134

5.4.

Use of investigative measures in practice ..................................................................................... 142

5.5.

Investigations and the private sector ............................................................................................ 144

5.6.

Law enforcement capacity .............................................................................................................. 152

CHAPTER SIX: ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE AND CRIMINAL

JUSTICE ................................................................................................................................................... 157

6.1.

Introduction to electronic evidence and digital forensics ......................................................... 157

6.2.

Capacity for digital forensics and electronic evidence handling ............................................... 162

6.3.

Cybercrime and the criminal justice system ................................................................................. 168

6.4.

Criminal justice capacity .................................................................................................................. 172

6.5.

Capacity building and technical assistance ................................................................................... 178

CHAPTER SEVEN: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ............................ 183 7.1.

Sovereignty, jurisdiction and international cooperation ............................................................ 183

7.2.

Jurisdiction ........................................................................................................................................ 189

7.3.

International cooperation I - formal cooperation ...................................................................... 197

7.4.

International cooperation II - informal cooperation ................................................................. 208

7.5.

Extra-territorial evidence from clouds and service providers ................................................... 216

CHAPTER EIGHT: PREVENTION .................................................................................. 225

8.1. Cybercrime prevention and national strategies ........................................................................... 225

8.2. Cybercrime awareness ..................................................................................................................... 234

8.3. Cybercrime prevention, the private sector and academia .......................................................... 239

ANNEX ONE: ACT DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................... 257

ANNEX TWO: MEASURING CYBERCRIME ...................................................................... 259

ANNEX THREE: PROVISIONS OF INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL

INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................... 267

ANNEX FOUR: THE INTERNET ............................................................................................. 277

ANNEX FIVE: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 283

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations

CSIRT Computer Security Incident Response Team

ECHR European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms ECtHR European Court of Human Rights

EU European Union

EUROPOL European Police Office

G8 Group of Eight

GDP Gross domestic product HDI Human Development Index ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICCPR-OP2

Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty ICERD

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

ICRMW United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All

Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

ICT Information and communications technology INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization

IP Internet protocol

ISP Internet service provider

IT Information technology

ITU International Telecommunication Union NFC Near field communication OP-CRC-SC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography

P2P Peer-to-peer

SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

SMS Short message service TRIPS Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

UNSC United Nations Security Council

URL Uniform Resource Locator USB Universal serial bus

VGT Virtual global taskforce

WEF World Economic Forum

List of international and regional instruments and short names

Draft African Union Convention

COMESA Draft Model Bill

Commonwealth Model Law

Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement

Council of Europe Cybercrime

Convention/Protocol

Council of Europe Child Protection Convention

ECOWAS Draft Directive

EU Directive on e-Commerce

EU Decision on Fraud and

Counterfeiting

EU Directive on Data Protection

EU Decision on Attacks against Information Systems EU

Directive on Data Retention

EU Directive Proposal on Attacks against Information

Systems

EU Directive on Child

Exploitation

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ITU/CARICOM/CTU Model Legislative Texts

League of Arab States Convention

League of Arab States Model Law

Shanghai Cooperation Organization Agreement

United Nations OP-CRC-SC

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INTRODUCTION

ix In its resolution 65/230, the General Assembly requested the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice to establish, in line with paragraph 42 of the Salvador Declaration on Comprehensive Strategies for Global Challenges: Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Systems and Their Development in a Changing World, an open-ended intergovernmental expert group, to conduct a comprehensive study of the problem of cybercrime and responses to it by Member States, the international community and the private sector, including the exchange of information on

national legislation, best practices, technical assistance and international cooperation, with a view to

examining options to strengthen existing and to propose new national and international legal or other responses to cybercrime.1 In its resolution 67/189, the General Assembly noted with appreciation the work of the open-ended intergovernmental expert group to conduct a comprehensive study of the problem of cybercrime and encouraged it to enhance its efforts to complete its work and to present the outcome of the study to the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in due course. The first session of the expert group was held in Vienna from 17 to 21 January 2011. At that meeting, the expert group reviewed and adopted a collection of topics and a methodology for the study.2 The collection of topics for consideration within a comprehensive study on cybercrime included the problem of cybercrime, legal responses to cybercrime, crime prevention and criminal justice capabilities and other responses to cybercrime, international organizations, and technical assistance. These main topics were further divided into 12 sub-topics.3

Within this Study, these

topics are covered in eight Chapters: (1) Connectivity and cybercrime; (2) The global picture; (3) Legislation and frameworks; (4) Criminalization; (5) Law enforcement and investigations; (6) Electronic evidence and criminal justice; (7) International cooperation; and (8) Prevention. The methodology for the study tasked the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime with developing the study, including developing a questionnaire for the purposes of information gathering, collecting and analyzing data, and developing a draft text of the study. Information gathering in accordance with the methodology, including the distribution of a questionnaire to Member States, intergovernmental organizations and representatives from the private sector and 1

General Assembly resolution 65/230, Annex.

2

E/CN.15/2011/19

3

(1) Phenomenon of cybercrime; (2) Statistical information; (3) Challenges of cybercrime; (4) Common approaches to legislation; (5)

Criminalization; (6) Procedural powers; (7) International cooperation; (8) Electronic evidence; (9) Roles and responsibilities of

service providers and the private sector; (10) Crime prevention and criminal justice capabilities and other responses to cybercrime;

(11) International organizations; and (12) Technical assistance. x academic institutions, was conducted by UNODC, from February 2012 to July 2012.

Information

was received from 69 Member States with regional distribution as follows: Africa (11), Americas (13),

Asia (19), Europe (24), and Oceania (2). Information was received from 40 private sector organizations, 16 academic organizations and 11 intergovernmental organizations. Over 500 open- source documents were also reviewed by the Secretariat. Further details on the methodology are contained at Annex Five to this Study. As required by General Assembly resolution 65/230, this Study has been prepared with a view to 'examining options to strengthen existing and to propose new national and international legal or other responses to cybercrime.' The mandate comes within the context of a number of other mandates and activities related to cybercrime and cybersecurity within the United Nations system. 4

In this respect, the focus of the Study is limited to the crime prevention and criminal justice aspects of

preventing and combating cybercrime. The Study represents a 'snapshot' in time of crime prevention and criminal justice efforts to prevent and combat cybercrime. It paints a global picture, highlighting lessons learned from current and past efforts, and

presenting possible options for future responses. While the Study is, by title, a study on 'cybercrime',

it has unique relevance for all crimes. As the world moves into a hyper-connected society with

universal internet access, it is hard to imagine a 'computer crime', and perhaps any crime, that will

not involve electronic evidence linked with internet connectivity. Such developments may well require fundamental changes in law enforcement approach, evidence gathering, and mechanisms of international cooperation in criminal matters.quotesdbs_dbs26.pdfusesText_32

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