[PDF] Gabriela Badea Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

View - Download Gabriela Badea Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

Previous PDF

Next PDF

Allegories of Selfhood in Late Medieval Devotional Literature

Gabriela Badea

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

2018

© 2018

Gabriela Badea

All rights reserved

ABSTRACT

Allegories of Selfhood in Late Medieval Devotional Literature

Gabriela Badea

This dissertation is a study of spatial allegorical representations of inwardness in late medieval devotional texts of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, with a focus on the topos of the garden of the contemplation of the Passion as a landscape of the heart. These representations of the self do not follow the temporal logic of autobiography but are instead organized around matrix spaces: architectures or gardens of inwardness. Named by Beaujour in opposition to life-narratives, these or literary self-portraits rely on topoï to express the most intimate contours of the individual. The first part of this dissertation considers how identity is negotiated with respect to the devotional norm in two private devotional exercises penned by cultured aristocrats. The abject

Livre des Seyntz Medicines is rooted in the

requirement to describe a deep self ontologically opaque to consciousness, while in René

Mortifiement de Vaine Plaisance, the sinfulness lodged in the heart is considered through the lens of an anthropology focused on affect. Because of their intertextual nature, locative tropes of interiority constitute an arena in which the individual shapes himself in relation to foundational texts. Topical representations of the self borrow their form from the setting of a particular text or reference an entire textual tradition, inviting the question of the role of reading practices in self formation. The second part

of this dissertation focuses on reading as a spiritual exercise, considering how the literary setting

of the Roman de la Rose came to be associated to a devotional representation of the self in the late Middle Ages. In response to the debates on language and allegoresis unfurling in the Quarrel of

Ame Devote,

subjecting the infamous secular text to a reading inspired by devotional meditative reading

practices. Later on, Jehan Henri mobilizes the topography of the Rose to describe the collective identity of reformed nuns in a series of texts promoting the agenda of monastic reformation ( Le

Livre de réformation utile et profitable pour toutes religieuses, Livre de la vie active and the Jardin

de Contemplation). Roman de la Rose Moralisé proposes a spiritual reading of

the Rose that testifies to a paradigm shift in the status of secular literature under the influence of

Rose to an

inner garden of the contemplation of the Passion. No longer an innocuous pastime, literature comes to carry high societal stakes because of being invested with a definite role in self-fashioning. The race for controlling the meaning of foundational texts leads to the proliferation of late medieval literary quarrels. An eJardin de Contemplation is provided in the appendix. i

Table of contents

List of illustrations

ii

Introduction

1

Livre des

Seyntz Medicines

17

Mortifiement de Vaine

Plaisance

71
Chapter 3. The Hermeneutic Garden: Allegoresis in the Quarrel of the

Romance of the Rose

128
Chapter 4. Spiritual Allegoresis of the Rose after the Quarrel: the Monastic

Garden

183

Conclusions

241

Bibliography

244

Jardin de Contemplation

264
ii

List of illustrations

1 Frère Laurent, Somme le roi. (The Garden of Virtues)

London, British Library, Add. MS 54180, fol. 69

97
2. 3. facing a deposition from the cross on the opposite folio. The emblem of sail bordered by thorns featured on both folios) Paris, BNF, manuscript latin 1156 A , fol. 80 v and 81) 120

4. Recueil des poésies moralisantes. (Staurofores: The estates helping Christ

to carry the cross)

Paris, BNF, manuscript fr. 2366, fol. 14r

124

5. Jehan Henri. Le Jardin de Contemplation. (The nuns at Aigueperse

contemplate the Tree of the Cross, while Devotion climbs on the ladder of contemplation)

Paris, BNF, manuscript fr. 00997, fol. 5r

204
iii

Acknowledgements

This dissertation would have not come to be without the advice, mentorship and kindness of a large number of people. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my main adviser, Professor Sylvie Lefèvre for her enduring patience, continued interest in my work and the razor-sharp precision with which she read multiple rewritings of all chapters. Her exacting standards of clarity and perceptive criticism greatly improved my work, while allowing me the intellectual freedom to conduct my hermeneutic quests on my own terms. I am also deeply grateful to Professor Christopher Baswell who played a great part in the choice of the subject of this dissertation. His uniquely kind way of providing critique helped me traverse the darkest periods of self-doubt. I am also thankful to Professor Jesus Rodriguez-Velasco for his continued engagement with this project and stimulating suggestions. I would also like to thank Professor Pierre Force for invaluable bibliographic recommendations that shaped the angle of my research in essential ways and for understanding the overall scope and import of my work better than myself. I would also like to difficult reading list on philosophical definitions of the subject. He generously answered all my questions about the intricacies of medieval philosophy. Finally, I would like to extend gratitude to Professor Deborah McGrady for agreeing to act as a reader on such short notice. Conversations with fellow medievalists from the Medieval Colloquium were the catalyst of a number of small revelations and eureka moments. I am especially grateful to Ruen Chuan Ma, my friend Iryna Lystopad for her support and guidance in questions of medieval theology. I am also grateful to Elina Kanellopoulou for her friendship and for the logical and philosophical rigor with which she helped me rework my first article. Nicoleta Marinescu offered precious feedback, iv while Victoria Cambranes also graciously edited the above article. I am also indebted to Alexandru

Virastau for his support during the most stressful times of this dissertation and for kindly correcting

the Latin in the edition in the appendix. A special debt of gratitude goes to Dr. Maria Wenglinsky, whose generosity and support made my year of teaching high-school French very enjoyable. She most graciously proofread the entire dissertation for submission at a very short notice. Any mistakes that survive are my own. Thanks are also due to non-medievalist friends who patiently put up with me droning for hours about medieval topics: Saliha Boussedra who had many a good laugh over what people were fighting about during medieval literary quarrels, Sarah Myers and Celia Abele who tried to convince me to take an interest in the modern counterpart of medieval hermeneutics, Yayra Sumah and Dominique Sirgy, trusted library buddies and providers of impromptu living-room concerts, whose warmth and kindness illuminated many a day, Mara Lasky for her encouragement and interest in medieval foxes, and Hiie Saumaa, dance teacher extraordinaire and wise friend. My colleagues Rose Gardner and Yohann Ripert were sources of comfort and encouragement in dire straits. I am also grateful to Helen Qiu and Denise Carroll for their caring friendship and for allowing me the space I needed to finish. I especially would like to acknowledge Nicole Briand and the other members of my Haitian prayer group, who were a family away from home and role-models of integrity and delicacy throughout my stay in NY. I would similarly like to extend thanks to Laura Petrache, Steluta Venice and Florina Radu for their continued support and friendship. I would also like to thank Anna Radzikowska, my Polish guardian angel, who can always cheer me up and my long standing friends Viviana Dimcev, Denisa Busu, Bogdana Koiso, Silvia Dinu, Irina Stelea, Miruna Dogaru, v Bianca Lepsa, Ina Chrita, Alexandra Stafie, Ema Lupusor, Ana Trandafir, Aleca Popa and Catalina Gaidau, who do not need any words to know the place they hold in my life. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents who are always my first audience and my biggest cheerleaders and whose prayers have carried me through thick and thin. 1

Introduction

This dissertation is a study of spatial allegorical representations of inwardness in late medieval devotional texts of the fourteenth and fiteenth century, with a focus on the topos of the garden of the contemplation of the Passion as a landscape of the heart. These representations of the self do not follow the temporal logic of autobiography, but are instead organized around matrix spaces: architectures or gardens of inwardness. Named by Beaujour in opposition to life-narratives, these or literary self-portraits rely on topoï to express the most intimate contours

of the individual.1 As it seeks to voice its particularity, the self is confronted by a language replete

with shared cultural categories and constitutes itself in figura Christi or other patterns implicitly

proposed for imitation. Since self-expression shapes the subject in the act of taking stock of itself,

commonplaces play a crucial part in self-formation.2 My examination of the richly intertextual topical images of inwardness of the late Middle Ages seeks to unearth the role that devotional reading techniques play in the formation of medieval subjects. In the introduction, I will first briefly outline the evolution of the field of studies of the universalizing medieval reading techniques, which bear witness to a creative appropriation of devotional models. I will then attempt to place my analysis of the locative tropes of inwardness in the larger context

1 Beaujour, Michel. . Paris : Editions du Seuil, 1980

2 See Little, Catherine. Confession and resistance: defining the self in late medieval England. Notre Dame:

University of Notre Dame Press, 2006: 5

2

of other studies of the relationship of tropes and self-expression or the meditative use of rhetorical

ornamentation. The late medieval period saw a flourishing of devotional literature. Because of the concern for the education of the laity instituted at Fourth Lateran Council (1215), didactic texts in the vernacular were produced in large numbers and acquired a large readership, circulating freely

between monastic and lay circles. Vernacular treatises had different pragmatic goals, from

confessional formae and manuals, summae on the virtues and vices, treatises for novices, Passion contemplation guides and spiritual works promoting imitatio Christi. Ultimately however, all these works converged in their aim to effect change in the devotional self. They were lodged in an self- gnosis and self-perfection. Devotional reading was invested in self-formation and self-definition.3 Modern critics seized upon this preoccupation with the self to examine devotional texts in thirteenth century philosophical and theological anthropology aims at defining the person through the modern lens of its 4 individuation as a break from collective identity, connecting it to the successive Renaissances of the Middle Ages and to the development of personal devotion.5 Caroline Walker Bynum pointed out that the devotional self represents a discovery of the homo interior , the soul rather than the

3 See Bryan, Jennifer. Looking inward: devotional reading and the private self in late medieval England.

Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 2008.

4 Wéber, Edouard-Henri. La Personne Humaine au XIIIe siècle

Paris : Librairie Philosophique Vrin, 1991

5 Morris, Collin. The Discovery of the Individual, 1050-1200. New York: Harper & Row, 1972

3 individual.6 is a far cry from the present-day definition of individuality through originality. Medieval notions of the homo interior were much more open and fluid than our modern conceptions of interiority, attached as they are to the notion of the individual consciousness.

7 singularitas, the wish to stand out, was deemed a fault in

monastic treatises. The interiority described by devotional texts was a universal model, independent of particulars such as class, gender or history. This allowed for a smooth circulation of normative texts between genders and even between secular and monastic audiences. Differentiated by their flaws, individuals aspired to pattern their lives on shared models. Inwardness was often represented as a landscape through the help of locative tropes. Spaces of the self varied from architectural representations (the room, house, citadel or monastery of the ubiquitous locus amoenus. Because of their non-narrative nature, these sites of self representation were never considered in connection with other forms of personal writing such as autobiographies,

6 Jesus as Mother, Berkley:

University of California Press, 1982: 82-110. See also Sc

fiction historiographique. La Fabrique, la figure et la feinte, Fictions et Status des Fictions en Psychologie,

Paris :L.Vrin, 1989 : 213-236

7 Fictions of the inner life, religious literature and the formation of the self in the eleventh and twelfth centuries,

Turnhout: Brepols, 2004

4 Ages led scholars like Nancy Partner to declare that the pre-modern era was an era of pre- individuals.8 The relationship between self-expression and tropes in medieval literature is fraught with misunderstandings. le poète est situé dans le langage, plutôt que son langage en lui. Sa parole discours. 9 I the authenticity of a testimony. 10 Similarly, Jacques Roubaud allows no room for individual self- expression in his notion of 11 All genres of medieval literature are heavily topical. An investigation of the way in which devotional representations of inwardness and the self-formation exercises contingent on them rely on tropes is consequential for apprehending the literary vestiges of medieval individualities in general. Moreover, rethinking tropes as propitious for self-expression rather than adverse would allow the extension of the province of self-writing to include works other than autobiographies.

8 Writing Medieval

History. London : Hodder Arnold, 2005 : 42-64

9 Zumthor, Paul. Essai e poètique médiévale. Paris : Editions du Seuil : 68

10 Zumthor :69

appartenir même si la fonctionnement : "ça

11 Roubaud, Jacques. La fleur inverse . Paris : Ramsay, 1986. For a contrary

point of view see Kay, Sarah. Subjectivity in troubadour poetry. Cambridge, New York : Cambridge University

Press, 1990 and Zink, Michel. La Subjectivité Littéraire autour du siècle de Saint Louis, Paris : PUF,1985

5 The main obstacle standing in the way of reevaluating the connection between topoi and

individuality is the Romantic equation of singularitas to a rejection of the norm. To find the perles

rares of pre-modern individualities, historians often look for dissenters, intellectual dissidents and

heretics. Orthodoxy is considered a leveling force, while error and divergence of opinion are viewed as a factor of particularization.12 However, devotional selves construct themselves through an appropriation of the norm, rather than through its rejection. Contemplative texts emphasize imitatio, patterning oneself on a model. Hagiographical texts and spiritual autobiographies propose examples for self-fashioning. Nevertheless, contrary to anachronistic preconceptions, devotional conformism is intensely personal. The refashioning of the deep self required in order to assimilate a model is not a passive operation, but an active engagement with the norm on the part of the subject, and one which entails a great degree of creativity. Devotional self-formation considers the entirety of the anatomy of the soul and individually

targets perception, affect, the irascible faculty, memory and the will. All the faculties are invested

in assimilating the norm. At all the levels of being, the processes of internalization emphasize the individual substratum of their operation. For instance, cognition cannot occur outside of the

13It is interesting to consider the body of didactic

works post-Lateran IV in the light of Boureau mandate to educate the laity stems from the presupposition that an intellectual understanding of the norm is required to conform to it. However, knowledge is conceived of as being conditioned 12 de la scolastique ( vers 1270- vers 1330 modernité. Paris :Aubier, 2005 : 302

13 Boureau: 291

6 by the level of instruction and background of the target audience, which is an individualized apprehension of noesis. The massive literature produced in the wake of the council seeks to cater

to different noetic subjects by adapting doctrine and scholastic savoir to their needs. Treatises are

shaped by their intended audience: a treatise for the education of priests is markedly different from

an account of conversion targeting a Jewish audience, although their doctrinal content might be the same. Since most spiritual exercises developed out of lectio divina, reading is the main avenue towards the internalization of the normative ideal. As my discussion of texts according to their pragmatic goal will demonstrate, different types of works target various faculties of the soul, with particular attention devoted to the refashioning of the affective man. Devotional reading modes mirror the valorization of experience in twelfth century spirituality and favor an experiential

rapport with the text. Meditative reading is experiential and appropriative, seeking to integrate the

text into the fabric of the individual. To achieve its pragmatic goal, religious reading places a great

deal of emphasis on creativity. In order to become efficacious, a singularitas. For instance, Passion contemplation exercices cultivate an eye-witness stance. The devout are encouraged to imagine themselves present at the scenes upon which they are meditating and to enrich Biblical narratives with details from their daily lives. For the purposes of participatory meditation, they can take creative leeway from the Scriptural account and invent minutiae or entire scenes of their own. This encourages an experiential reading that creates an arch between the 7 Biblical events and the narrative of their own lives, allowing the two to merge, so that their lives can be refashioned on the model of imitatio Christi.14 Meditative reading only accomplishes its pragmatic goal if it leads to a reconsideration of -construction.

Confessions place the

description of the evolution of the self in relation to a spiritual tradition. 15

the ancient genre of hypomnemata proves, the individual can constitute itself in relation to

reading.16 The account of inner life can take the shape of a collection of literary tropes, because

much of the spiritual itinerary of the individual delineates itself in relation to his or her

understanding of foundational texts. The locative tropes that represent the self have a dual nature. On the one hand, they help to map and explore the deep self. On the other hand, on a rhetorical level, they are entirely made up These landscapes of the innermost self are rhetorical topoi invested with a great intertextual memory. Sometimes these literary places refer to identifiable literary topographies, such as the garden in the Roman de la Rose, at other times they summon up entire textual traditions. Topical geographies of inwardness presuppose an overlap between a literary space and a space of the self, which begs the question of the relationship between self-formation and the textual tradition.

14 On creative meditation see Despres, Denise Louise. Ghostly Sights: Visual Meditation in late medieval literature.

Norman Okla: Pilgrim Books, 1989: 36-37

15 Despres 25

16 Foucault, Michel. .Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth. New York: The New Press, 1997: 207-221

8 The question is very interesting if we think of the self in the terms of Eric Jager monograph on the book of the heart.17 Every thought and every action is inscribed onto the tablet

of the heart. The self can therefore be considered a text, a text that can be corrected, rewritten, that

can be modelled on another text. The relationship of the self to the textual models proposed for imitation in devotional literature can therefore be understood in terms of intertextuality, as an interplay between the inward text of the heart and an outer text, which derives its devotional efficaciousness from being absorbed into the inward text. Besides this inner intertextuality, there is also the traditional rhetorical charge of an allegorical trope. The rewriting of topoi connotes a

way of reading a precise intertext or a more generic reaction to an entire literary tradition, such as

champ des écritures. My dissertation aims to connect the understanding of the workings of medieval intertext to the inner intertextuality that underlies self-formation. I contend that the study of the tropes of inwardness will also shed light on the way in which reading modes shaped the subject. The role of topoi for self-formation is linked to their value for meditative reading exercises. Devotional tropes of inwardness serve as a scaffolding on which the self builds itself. Meditating models of inwardness like th into mental images and inscribed on the heart. As Mary Carruthers points out this exercise is underlain by a paradox: although the model is universal, it is generally expected that each mental image formed from it is going to be different. 18The role of tropes in meditation should inform our

17 Jager, Eric. The Book of the Heart. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000

18 of the hearts that built it, and yet, still be -ad res- the 9 understanding of their literary and pragmatic workings as well. Commonplaces are indeed repetitive, but every time they are rewritten to assist with self-formation, they mirror a mental image of the trope that bears the imprint of an individual subjectivity. private devotional exercises are profitable to others besides their author, because readers can inhabit the first person opened by the text. The tropes of inwardness exist to be performed, generating novel mental imaginings of the self with each individual reader. The study of the subtle rewritings of tropes opens a window into the workings of this performance of the self, which is, as it were, a simultaneous performance of e, texts exist performatively, as an actualization of tradition through its tropes.19 Devotional representations of inwardness tie the performance of the self to that of a literary and devotional tradition. Mary Carruthers advances the notion that tropes, especially difficult ones like allegory, are catalysts for meditation because they require an interpretative effort. Meditative reading is not

linear. In the Scriptures, the opacity of tropes acts like a signpost that arrests the attention of the

reader and constitutes an egress from the textual universe into that of memory. Tropes, because of -fork, the textual trope reverberates in the cultural-made-personal memories of those who read it20 Associative reading

the manner of a photograph, but in the manner of a pun, collating in her own memory a particular avatar of the

templum ,

Mary. The Craft of thought: meditation, rhetoric and the making of images, 400-1200. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2008: 148

19 Zumthor considers how topical literature constitutes itself in relation to tradition: :

permettre cette métaphore.

20 Carruthers. The Craft of Thought : 148

10 is a mechanism of assimilation of the texts that have a foundational value for self-formation. Carruthers points out that meditative association is in fact grounded in the rhetorical technique of inventio. She advances that pagan literature was valued because of its ornamentation, which

promoted meditative readings. Tropes, divorced from the constraints of auctorial intention,

promoted the type of associations which had the value of a spiritual exercise. My approach to the locative topoi of inwardness is an attempt to connect the rhetorical

treatment of tropes to the spiritual exercise that underlies it. According to Jung, allegorical writing

is a form of rereading indicative of the reception of certain intertexts. For instance, the refashioning

of the allegorical setting of the Roman de la Rose into a garden of the contemplation of the Passion implies taking a stance in the aftermath of the Querelle de la Rose and its debates on allegoresis. But while this metamorphosis of the trope reveals something about the reception of the Rose, it is also invested in transforming the text into a support for religious meditation. The rhetorical side of the question is inseparable from the spiritual exercise that it incorporates. While sometimes, the intertexts that are reread in the rhetorical transformation of a trope can be identified with precision, as Mary Caruthers points out associative reading mobilizes the entire cultural universe of the reader/ writer. On account of their intertextual charge, tropes are carriers of a larger cultural memory or norm with respect to which the individual attempts to

fashion him or herself. The role afforded to locative tropes in devotional self-expression

epitomizes a dynamic portrait of the individual as a reader in the process of grappling with foundational texts.

In order to understand how tropes codify self-

notion of self-portrait comes in very useful. He considered the relationship between tropes and self-expression from the Renaissance to modernity. The birth of the individual is equated with the 11 birth of autobiography, because it is mistakenly assumed that this is the only form of self-writing. However, Beaujour theorized an alternative, the self-portrait, which is intrinsically reliant on tropes. The spatial depictions of inwardness that characterize this genre escape the temporal logic of autobiographies. Commonplaces construct the self as an arena in which the relationship between the individual and culture is played out. Self-expression is bound by the preexisting categories for

self-definition culturally available in language. Thus, self-exploration becomes a scrutiny of

culture as it is reflected in a mirror of subjectivity which it shapes. I summarize [resume] the structure of the world, as the microcosm summarizes [resume] the macrocosm. Consequently, the discourse of I and on I becomes a collective discourse on the universe of things- thing being taken here in the sense of res: subject to be treated, commonpl- or narcissistic- portrait of an I cut off from things, nor an objective description of things in themselves independent of the attention I give them: the self portrait is a coming into textual consciousness [prise de conscience textuelle] of the homologies and the interfaces between the microcosmic I and the macrocosmic encyclopedia. It is in this sense that we must see the self-portrait as a mirror of I answering en abyme to the great encyclopedic mirrors of the world .... The mirror therefore does not aim to narrate, but rather to deploy intelligibly a representation of things, or of the subject who knows them. 21 Topical self-expression is encyclopedic in nature, because the microcosm of the individual

mirrors the macrocosm of the tradition with respect to which it constitutes itself. The self is shown

grappling to simultaneously absorb and delineate itself from the prefabricated categories in which it is couched. Places of inwardness embody the macrocosm mentioned by Beaujour, in relation to which individuals define themselves. My study of allegorical landscapes of the self adopts this larger perspective, underlining whenever possible that interpretation feeds on chains of commentary and that besides precise intertexts, tropes also encode the larger spectrum of tradition.

21 Beaujour 30-33

12 Besides the intertextual functioning of tropes, I have tried to shed light on the metatextual information they carry and its role in self-formation. Through their constant textual metamorphoses, tropes connote metafictional data about reading modes and entire hermeneutic traditions. Unlike internet metadata, which accompanies a content or exchange, but is not its -formation. The individual shapes itself in relation to culture and the way in which it is being read. Landscapes of inwardness invite the question of how reading and interpretation was perceived as acting upon self-formation and the ethical value afforded to texts. Since architectural tropes of inwardness have been studied, I have chosen to focus on the topos of the inner garden of the contemplation of the Passion.22 Besides a brief mention in the article on hortus in the Dictionnaire de Spiritualité, to my knowledge, this important trope has

received no critical attention.23 Since the contemplation of the Passion is one of the most important

types of spiritual exercises in late medieval piety, the space of inwardness defined by the trope is coextensive with the devotional practice intended to shape it.24 Focusing solely on a corpus related to the contemplation of the Passion will showcase how subtle a rhetorical instrument

22 Cowling, David. Building the text, architecture as metaphor in Jean Lemaire and les rhetoriqueurs. Oxford ; New

York : Clarendon Press, 1998; Bauer, Gerhardt. Claustrum animae; Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Metapher

vom Herzen als Kloster. Mnchen:W. Fink, 1973; Whitehead, Christiania. Castles of the mind: a study of medieval

architectural allegory. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2003

23 Bertaud, Emile. Dictionnaire de Spiritualité Ascétique et Mystique. Paris : Beauchesne. 1937-95, vol.7 :

col.766-784

24 Bestul, Thomas. Texts of the passion : Latin devotional literature and medieval society. Philadelphia: Penn :

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996; Marrow, James H. From Sacred Allegory to Descriptive Narrative :

Transformations of Passion Iconography in the Late Middle Ages. New York: 1975; The Broken Body : Passion

Devotion in Late-Medieval Culture., edited by A.A. MacDonald, H.N.B. Ridderbos and R.M. Schlusemann.

Groningen : Egbert Forsten, 1998; Fulton, Rachel. From Judgment to Passion Devotion to Christ and the Virgin

Mary, 800-1200. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002 13quotesdbs_dbs46.pdfusesText_46

[PDF] La rouille du fer

[PDF] la roulotte qui gigote

[PDF] la roussette rousse est une espèce de chauve souris

[PDF] La route des Flandres

[PDF] la route du futur bill gates pdf

[PDF] la route du futur bill gates résumé

[PDF] La route du Rhum

[PDF] la rue de prague contexte historique

[PDF] la rue de prague otto dix

[PDF] la rue de prague wikipédia

[PDF] la ruée vers l'or

[PDF] la ruée vers l'or alaska

[PDF] la ruée vers l'or chaplin

[PDF] la ruée vers l'or charlie chaplin film entier

[PDF] la ruée vers l'or definition