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NON-STANDARD

EMPLOYMENT

AROUND THE WORLD

Understanding challenges, shaping prospects

NON-ST

ANDARD EMPLOYMENT

AROUND THE WORLD

Understanding challenges, shaping prospects

International Labour Ofce

Geneva

Non-standard employment around the world: Understanding challenges, shaping prospects

ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data

This publication was produced by the Document and Publications Productio n, Printing and Distribution Branch (PRODOC) of the ILO. Graphic and typographic design, layout and composition, proofreading, printing, electronic publishing and distribution. PRODOC endeavours to use paper sourced from forests managed in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner.

Code: DTP-CORR-JMB-STA

INTRODUCTION

PREFACE

I

NON-STANDARD EMPLOYMENT AROUND THE WORLD

Philippe Marcadent,

INTRODUCTION

Window washers, Muntinlupa City, Philippines © ILO/Bobot Go

INTRODUCTION

Preface................................................................... v List of abbreviations ........................................................ xix Executive summary......................................................... xxi Introduction............................................................... 1

1. What is non-standard employment?......................................... 7

1.1. The regulation of employment and the concept of the “standard employment

relationship" ......................................................... 10

1.2. Non-standard employment in developing countries and overlap with informality ..... 15

1.3. The distinction between non-standard employment and precarious employment

and the need to address insecurities at work ................................ 18

1.4. Dening non-standard employment in law and practice........................ 20

1.5. Summary........................................................... 41

2. Understanding trends in non-standard employment ............................ 47

2.1. Temporary employment ................................................ 52

2.2. Part-time employment and on-call work.................................... 75

2.3. Temporary agency work and other contractual relationships involving multiple parties.. 87

2.4. Disguised employment and dependent self-employment ....................... 98

2.5. Summary........................................................... 102

Appendix: Statistical denitions and data issues.................................. 110

3. Women, young people and migrants in non-standard employment ................ 117

3.1. Women ............................................................ 119

3.2. Young people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

CONTENTS

NON-STANDARD EMPLOYMENT AROUND THE WORLD

3.3. Migrants............................................................ 144

3.4. Summary........................................................... 151

4. Why rms use non-standard employment and how it affects them ................ 157

4.1. Why do rms use non-standard employment? ............................... 157

4.2. How widespread is the use of non-standard employment among rms?............ 164

4.3. Effects on rms ...................................................... 170

4.4. Summary........................................................... 180

5. Effects on workers, labour markets and society................................ 185

5.1. Effects on workers.................................................... 186

5.2. Effects on labour markets and economies at large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

5.3. Wider social consequences ............................................. 221

5.4. Summary........................................................... 223

Appendix: Review of literature ............................................... 233

6. Addressing decent work decits in non-standard employment ................... 247

6.1. Legislative responses: plugging regulatory gaps.............................. 250

6.2. Collective responses: collective bargaining and worker voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

6.3. Adapting social protection systems to improve protection for workers in

non-standard employment .............................................. 298

6.4. Instituting employment and social policies to manage social risks and accommodate

transitions .......................................................... 307

6.5. Policy conclusions .................................................... 315

Appendix: Most relevant ILO instruments concerning non-standard employment ......... 323 References................................................................ 337 Acknowledgements......................................................... 373

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 The different types of non-standard employment....................... 8 Figure 1.2 The multiple functions of the employment relationship .................. 12 Figure 1.3 Overlap of non-standard employment with informality and precariousness ... 16 Figure 1.4 Seven areas of potential work insecurity ............................. 19 Figure 1.5 The legal forms of non-standard employment ......................... 21 Figure 1.6 Multi-party employment relationships ............................... 33 Figure 2.1 Share of employment in the services sector, by sex and region, 1991-2020 .. 48 Figure 2.2 Percentage of employed workers who are wage employees, around 2013.... 52 Figure 2.3 Temporary workers as a percentage of wage employees, selected countries.. 53 Figure 2.4 Workers with xed-term contracts as a percentage of all employees, selected European countries, 1993-2014 ............................ 54 Figure 2.5 Trends in involuntary temporary employment as a percentage of temporary employment, 2007 and 2014 ..................................... 57 Figure 2.6 Temporary workers as a percentage of wage employees, selected CIS countries, 2000-14 ............................................. 59 Figure 2.7 Temporary workers as a percentage of wage employees, selected Latin American countries, 2003-14 ..................................... 61 Figure 2.8 Temporary employment among formal and informal wage earners, selected Latin American countries, early 2010s............................... 63 Figure 2.9 Temporary employment as a percentage of wage employment in Canada,

1997-2014 ................................................... 64

Figure 2.10 Casual employees in Australia as a percentage of all employees, 1992-2013 . 65 Figure 2.11 Trends in composition of paid employment in the Republic of Korea, 2001-13 . 67 Figure 2.12 Temporary workers as a percentage of wage employees, selected Asian countries..................................................... 69 Figure 2.13 Casual workers as a percentage of wage employees, selected Asian countries,

1983-2012 ................................................... 69

Figure 2.14 Incidence and trends of casual employment as a percentage of overall wage employment in Pakistan and Indonesia, by industry, 2002-12 ............. 70 Figure 2.15 Incidence and trends of various forms of temporary employment as a percentage of all wage employment, selected African countries,

1999-2014 ................................................... 72

Figure 2.16 Temporary employment in selected African countries by rural and urban area, selected years ................................................ 73

NON-STANDARD EMPLOYMENT AROUND THE WORLD

Figure 2.17 Adjustment of contractual forms of employment in response to economic shocks, Uganda, 2009-12 ....................................... 74 Figure 2.18 Adjustment of working hours in response to economic shocks, Uganda ..... 75 Figure 2.19 Workers with less than 35 hours per week as a percentage of all employees.. 77 Figure 2.20 Trends in involuntary part-time work as a percentage of total part-time work, selected European countries, 2005 and 2014.......................... 80 Figure 2.21 Trends in involuntary part-time work as a percentage of total part-time work, selected Latin American countries, 2003-13 .......................... 80 Figure 2.22 Incidence of time-related underemployment as a percentage of all persons in employment, 2010 ........................................... 81 Figure 2.23 Growth of marginal part-time employment - percentage of employees working fewer than 15 hours per week in ten European countries, 2000-12......... 82 Figure 2.24 On-call workers as a percentage of all employees, Europe, 2004........... 85 Figure 2.25 Percentage of workers on a zero-hours contract in the United Kingdom,

2005-15 ..................................................... 86

Figure 2.26 Evolution of on-call employment in the Republic of Korea, 2001-13......... 86 Figure 2.27 Occupations with highest concentration of temporary agency workers, United States, 2012............................................. 88 Figure 2.28 Temporary agency workers as a percentage of all workers, France,

1982-2013 ................................................... 89

Figure 2.29 Temporary agency workers as a percentage of employees, selected countries, 2005 and 2010 ........................................ 90 Figure 2.30 Percentage of workers employed in temporary agency work, by age, 2012 ... 91 Figure 2.31 Percentage of workers employed in temporary agency work, by occupation,

2012 ........................................................ 91

Figure 2.32 Temporary agency workers as a percentage of employees, Japan,

1999-2015 ................................................... 92

Figure 2.33 Workers in organized manufacturing, engaged directly and through contractors, India, 1995-96 to 2011-12 ............................. 94 Figure 2.34 Percentage of contract workers by industry group, 3-digit NIC, India,

1998-99 compared to 2011-12 ................................... 95

Figure 2.35 Percentage of direct hires, subcontracted workers and temporary agency workers, by economic sector, Chile, 2011 ............................ 97 Figure 2.36 Evolution of temporary agency work in Argentina, 1996-2014............. 98 Figure 2.37 Dependent self-employed as a percentage of dependent workers, Europe,

2010 ........................................................ 99

Figure 3.1 Distribution of part-time work (<35 hours per week) among wage employees,

2014 ........................................................ 122

CONTENTS

Figure 3.2 Distribution of marginal part-time work (<15 hours per week) among wage employees, 2014............................................... 123 Figure 3.3 Percentage of part-time workers in the elementary sales and cleaning services sector, by sex, selected European countries, 2009-10 ............ 124 Figure 3.4 Percentage of teaching professionals on xed-term and part-time contracts, by sex, selected European countries, 2009-10 ........................ 127 Figure 3.5 Employees with FTCs as a percentage of the working population aged 15-64, total and by sex, average for selected European countries, 1995-2014 ...... 128 Figure 3.6 Evolution of temporary employment, by sex, selected Latin American countries . 129 Figure 3.7 Evolution of temporary employment, by sex, selected Asian countries ....... 130 Figure 3.8 Evolution of temporary employment, by sex, selected African countries ...... 131 Figure 3.9 Trends in casual work, by sex, Zimbabwe, 2004-14..................... 132 Figure 3.10 Temporary employment in the services sector, by sex, selected countries, circa 2013 ................................................... 133 Figure 3.11 Share of age groups in NSE relative to their share in total employment in Europe, 2014 ............................................... 135 Figure 3.12 Employees with FTCs as a percentage of working population aged 15to64, by age group, average of selected European countries, 2000-15........... 136 Figure 3.13 Percentage of workers employed in temporary agency work, by age, average of selected European countries, 2012 ................................ 136 Figure 3.14 Workers aged 15-24, main reason for being in temporary employment (as a percentage of total temporary employment), Europe, 2014 ........... 137 Figure 3.15 Temporary workers as a percentage of wage employees in selected Asian countries, by age group, 2007-10 .................................. 139 Figure 3.16 The proportion of young men and women in wage employment and in stable wage employment.............................................. 140 Figure 3.17 Incidence of part-time work among young and prime-age workers, 2014 .... 141 Figure 3.18 Incidence of involuntary part-time work among young men and women,

2014 ........................................................ 142

Figure 4.1 Firms" strategies with respect to part-time employment and implications for its quality .................................................. 160 Figure 4.2 Temporary employment as a percentage of total wage employment in private sector rms, developing and transition countries, circa 2010 ............. 165 Figure 4.3 Firms" use of temporary workers, developing and transition countries, circa 2010.................................................... 166 Figure 4.4 Firms" use of temporary workers, 22 European countries, 2010............ 167 Figure 4.5 Firms" use of temporary workers, Spain and Norway, 2010 ............... 168

NON-STANDARD EMPLOYMENT AROUND THE WORLD

Figure 4.6 Firms" use of part-time workers, 2002, 2006 and 2010 .................. 169 Figure 4.7 Use of temporary labour by economic sector, developing and transition countries..................................................... 170 Figure 4.8 Risks of a blended workforce to the rm ............................. 176 Figure 4.9 Issues related to NSE as a percentage of reported incidents, 2005-13 ...... 177 Figure 5.1 Non-standard employment: Stepping stone or trap?..................... 188 Figure 5.2 Wage penalties for temporary work, selected empirical ndings (percentages) . 191 Figure 5.3 Wage gaps associated with temporary employment along the wage distribution, latest available year ................................... 193 Figure 5.4 Wage gaps associated with part-time employment along the wage distribution, latest available year............................................. 194 Figure 5.5 Wage gaps associated with temporary employment at the mean and along the wage distribution ........................................... 195 Figure 5.6 Incidence and trends in multiple job holding in European countries among total employed, 2005 and 2015.................................... 199 Figure 5.7 OSH risk factors in non-standard employment arrangements ............. 203 Figure 5.8 Differences in access to social security benets between temporary and permanent workers, selected developing countries ..................... 205 Figure 5.9 Employer-sponsored training received by standard workers and various non-standard workers, selected countries ............................ 208 Figure 5.10 Shifts from “no contract" to “contract", Peru (2004-10) and Morocco (2004-13) .................................................... 220 Figure 5.11 Summary of evidence on various insecurities associated with non-standard employment................................................... 224

Figure 6.1 Making jobs better and supporting workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Figure 6.2 Plugging regulatory gaps......................................... 250 Figure 6.3 Legal prohibition of the use of xed-term contracts for permanent tas ks ..... 268 Figure 6.4 Maximum legal duration of xed-term contracts, including renewals........ 270 Figure 6.5 Levels of collective bargaining and bargaining coverage, 2012-13 ......... 286quotesdbs_dbs25.pdfusesText_31

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