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The legitimacy of Orders of St. John : a historical and legal analysis and case study of a para-religious phenomenon

Hoegen Dijkhof, H.J.

Citation

Hoegen Dijkhof, H. J. (2006, September 27). The legitimacy of Orders of St. John : a historical and legal analysis and case study of a para-religious phenomenon. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/4576

Version:Corrected Publisher s Version

License:Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden

Downloaded from:https://hdl.handle.net/1887/4576

Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable).

THE LEGITIMACY OF ORDERS OF ST. JOHN

A historical and legal analysis and case study

of a para-religious phenomenon

PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Dr. D.D. Breimer, hoogleraar in de faculteit der Wiskunde en

Natuurwetenschappen en die der Geneeskunde,

volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 27 september 2006 klokke 16.15 uur door

Hendrik Johannes Hoegen Dijkhof

geboren te Doetinchem in 1947 2

Promotiecommissie

Promotoren:

Prof. Dr. A.W.F.M. van de Sande

Prof. Mr. J. E. Spruit (UU)

Referent:

Dr. A. Koster (VUA)

Overige leden:

Prof. Dr. E.G.E. van der Wall

Prof. Dr. P.S. van Koningsveld

Dr. H.L. Murre-van den Berg

3 'Iustum et tenacem propositi virum, non civium ardor prava iubentium, non voltus instantis tyranni, mente quatit solida,' (Horatius, Odes 3.3.1-4) Copyright © 2006 Hans J. Hoegen Dijkhof. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author.

4ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Prevented by a Leyden mos, I regret being unable to thank here all those who put me on track and also provided me with first hand information. Neither can I thank here especially those eminent persons, without whose continuous strong support, expert advice and stern guidance, this study could never have been realised and whom I am proud to count among my friends now. Robert Rakison, solicitor in London, proofread the English version of the manuscript. I am grateful to him for his useful comments. My able secretary, Ms. Sarita Zoomers, streamlined the manuscript and also was a great help in preparing the index. Last, but not least, I thank my beloved wife for putting up with me during the preparation of this study, which took many hours from our family life again. It is therefore to her that I dedicate this study: to Astrid, she who walks in the favour of the Gods.

5PREFACE

The case of the Knights of St. John is so fascinating and the question of the legitimacy so challenging, although perhaps an opus desperatum, that I could not stay away from it. It took me to Cyprus, Malta, Rhodes, St. Petersburg, Jaffa, Jerusalem and I was also on a crusade of my own. An arduous fight for a worthy cause, i.e. to try to find some truth and shed some light.

Beltjens

1 said that 'Coupé de son histoire, l'ordre de Malte 2 perdrait sa spécificité, ne serait plus qu'une societé caritative parmi d'autres.' Basically, this applies to all Orders of St. John, recognised or not. It is inter alia the aim of this author to investigate in this study the alleged uninterrupted formal and/or material continuity, as well as the alleged continual acts of charity and of defence of the Faith, surrounding all recognised or false, or rather legitimate or illegitimate, regular or irregular Orders of St. John, alleged and claimed by practically all of them. In doing so, I apply a neutral, but critical approach. Hopefully the reader will thereby be better enabled to see the true story of the original Order and later Orders, as well as the different realities and irrealities in the stream of time and to draw his own conclusions. Not only about the legitimacy of The Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of Malta - The Ecumenical Order - , but also about that of any other Orders of St. John. 1

Beltjens, Origines, foreword.

2 By which he meant the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

6ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4

PREFACE 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS 6

LIST OF ABBREVIATEDLY CITED LITERATURE 19

I. INTRODUCTION 23

I.1. Bewildering number of Orders of St. John 23

I.2. Trying to find a way 24

I.3 Even more Orders of St. John 26

I.4. Direct and indirect historical roots 27 I.5. Alliance Orders versus self-styled Orders 27

I.6. Purposes and method of this study 28

I.7. Caveats 30

I.8. A law finding exercise 30

I.9. What is legitimacy? 31

I.10. Neutral and normative concepts of legitimacy 31

I.11. Legality and legitimacy 32

I.12. Transcending effect of legitimacy 33

I.13. The role of justice 33

I.14. Is granting legitimacy possible? 34

I.15. The charity aspect 35

I.16. The chivalric aspect 35

I.17. Meaning of Order 36

I.18. Questions confronted 36

I.19. The status quaestionis 38

I.20. How the questions will be dealt with 41 I.21. The self-portrayal of The Ecumenical Order 42

I.22. Historical investigation needed 46

II. A CRITICAL LOOK AT THE HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENTS 47

II.1. Various ways to approach the original Order's history 47 II.2. Difficulties in trying to write the original Order's history 47

II.3. Distinguishing phases 48

7III. FIRST PHASE (1050-1291): DEVELOPING FROM A

CHARITY INTO A TRUST CONSTRUCTION AND A

WELL-OILED MILITARY MACHINE 51

III.1. From Roman times to the First Crusade 51 III.2. The origin and nature of the Order carried by the First

Crusade 56

III.3. Alleged recognition by Baldwin I as legal person 57 III.4. The privileged position of the Church 58

III.5. Piae causae and fraternitates 59

III.6. International complications of the spreading Order 60 III.7. The influence of the Investiture Controversy on the Order's development 61 III.8. The influence of tax exemption on the Order's development 63

III.9. Brief analysis of the Bull Piae 66

III.10. Similar Bulls 70

III.11. The feudal relationship 72

III.12. The trust aspect revisited 73

III.13. The jus patronatus; the position of hospitals 74 III.14. Motives for bringing in the maneria 76 III.15. The original Order never was a regular religious Order of the Church 77

III.16. Monasticism 78

III.17. The Charity aspect overshadowed by the military aspect 79

III.18. Canon law 80

III.19. The overriding influence of Popedom on medieval government and society 82

III.20. Militarisation continued 83

III.21. Militarisation as logical consequence of earlie developments 86 III.22. Nobility and knighthood and the influence of the Church 87 III.23. Chivalry and the medieval pathos of life 89 III.24. The dream of a noble and heroic life 90 III.25. The Infidels turning the tables 93 III.26. The Crusader conquest of Constantinople 95 III.27. The influence of constant war on the position of the Knights 96 III.28. The feudal system in the Holy Land 98 III.29. Western European expansion and Colonialism 99 III.30. Vital meaning of Christian Holy War concepts 101 III.31. Ultimate effects of the Crusades 102

8IV. SECOND PHASE (1291-1523): LOOSING THE ORIGINAL

OBJECTIVES AND BECOMING A SOVEREIGN POWER

ON RHODES 105

IV.1. The Order of St. John on Cyprus 105 IV.2. Reorganising the Order in the aftermath of the loss of the

Holy Land 105

IV.3. The collapse of Papal power; the destruction of the Order of the Temple 107 IV.4. The Order of St. John and the Teutonic Order seeking new territories 109 IV.5. The occupation of Rhodes; the sovereignty of the Order there 110 IV.6. Taking over the Templar estates 113

IV.7. The Order in the remainder of the 14

th century 114 IV.8. The steady advance of the Turks; the Order's increased sovereignty 116 IV.9. The role of Venice; Italian versus French colonialism 117

IV.10. Continued Turkish expansion 117

IV.11. The Ghazi's and the Janissary; the Desvirme 118 IV.12. The influence of Byzantine civilisation and Roman law on the Turkish empire 119 IV.13. Further Turkish advances into the Western direction 120

IV.14. Economic background 120

IV.15. The rise of the Habsburgs 121

IV.16. The Fall of Rhodes 122

V. THIRD PHASE (1530-1798): DEVELOPING INTO AN

ECONOMIC HUB ON MALTA AND BECOMING

PARTLY ECUMENICAL 124

V.1. Valois versus Habsburgs 124

V.2. The end of a seven year wandering period 124

V.3. Some background on Malta 125

V.4. The local reaction to the arrival of the Knights 126 V.5. Consequences of the Reformation for members of the Order 127 V.6. The role of the Jesuit Order; the Roman Inquistion 128

V.7. The Counter-Reformation 129

V.8. The Four Quarters Rule 130

V.9. The consequences of further religious struggles in Germany and England 133

V.10. The Great Siege 134

9V.11. The Battle of Lepanto

135

V.12. The Inquisition on Malta 136

V.13. The Prince Grandmaster's sovereign position 137

V.14. Honorary titles 138

V.15. Strengthening of the Prince Grandmaster's position 138

V.16. The Thirty Years War 139

V.17. The Venetian Wars 140

V.18. The Peace of Westphalia 140

V.19. Relations with Russia; opening up of the Ottoman Empire 141

V.20. Reign of Grandmaster Pinto 142

V.21. Templars revived in Germany; the Balley of Brandenburg paying responsions 143

V.22. Ecumenism 143

V.23. Ecumenism and developments in Poland 145

V.24. Reign of Grandmaster Rohan 145

V.25. The situation on Malta: a long drawn-out war for supremacy between the Grandmaster, the Inquisition and the Bishop 147

V.26. The French Revolution 148

V.27. Actions of Bailiff Alexander Litta 149 V.28. The First Treaty (4/15 January 1797) 150 V.29. Czar Paul I Protector of the Order (Second Treaty, 29

November/10 December 1797) 152

V.30. Paul I to found the Orthodox Russian Grand Priory (Third Treaty, 1 June 1798) 153

V.31. Napoleon attacks Malta 154

VI. FOURTH PHASE (1798-1803): BECOMING MORE

ECUMENICAL IN RUSSIA UNDER GRANDMASTER

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