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1

Project

Aircraft Fuel Consumption ±

Estimation and Visualization

Author: Marcus Burzlaff

Supervisor: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz, MSME

Delivery Date: 13.12.2017

Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science

Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering

URN: http://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:gbv:18302-aero2017-12-13.019 Associated URLs: http://nbn-resolving.org/html/urn:nbn:de:gbv:18302-aero2017-12-13.019

© This work is protected by copyright

The work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License: CC BY-NC-SA

Any further request may be directed to:

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz, MSME

E-Mail see: http://www.ProfScholz.de

This work is part of:

Digital Library - Projects & Theses - Prof. Dr. Scholz http://library.ProfScholz.de

Published by

Aircraft Design and Systems Group (AERO)

Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering

Hamburg University of Applied Science

This report is deposited and archived:

x Deutsche Nationalbiliothek (http://www.dnb.de) This report has associated published data in Harvard Dataverse: http://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/2HMEHB

Abstract

the calculation of fuel consumption of aircraft. With only the reference of the aircraft manu- that allows computing values for the fuel consumption of every aircraft in question. The air- craft's fuel consumption per passenger and 100 flown kilometers decreases rapidly with range, where payload reduction becomes necessary, fuel consumption increases significantly. Nu- number of long-haul flights, the results are investigated in terms of efficiency and viability. The environmental impact of burning fuel is not considered in this report. The presented method allows calculating aircraft type specific fuel consumption based on publicly available information. In this way, the fuel consumption of every aircraft can be investigated and can be discussed openly. DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOTIVE AND AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Aircraft Fuel Consumption ±

Estimation and Visualization

Task for a Project according to university regulations.

Background

3B8D OLPHUV SHU 100 SMVVHQJHU NLORPHPHUV´ ± this was Lufthansa Group's specific fuel

consumption in 2016, averaged over short-haul and long-haul flights. The statement was taken from Lufthansa Group's Sustainability Report 2017. The amount of consumed fuel depends on different factors: aircraft type, distance, payload, cruise Mach number, and more. It is evident: a) The longer the distance flown, the more fuel will be consumed. b) Is fuel consumption sufficiently constant versus range, if the fuel consumption is calculated per range? c) How does the picture change if we consider fuel consumption per range and per number of seats? Consider: Payload (and hence number of passengers) has to be reduced for flights at very long range. A nonlinear behavior is found for specific fuel consumption plotted

versus range in all the cases mentioned. The problem: Publicly available aircraft data is

always limited. Task Task of this project is to extract the aircraft's efficiency (aerodynamics and engines) from given payload-range diagrams. Here, help is available from previous project word. Based on this data the fuel consumption of an aircraft can be plotted, analyzed, and discussed.

Following subtasks have to be considered:

x Analyzing payload-range diagrams with basic flight mechanics. x Plotting and investigating fuel consumption versus range (Breguet Factor, ³bath tub cXUYH´). x Writing an Excel tool to support such fuel calculations and its visualization. x Applying gained insight in a critical investigation of current long range aircraft operation. The report has to be written in English based on German or international standards on report writing. 4

Content

Page

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 6

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. 7

List of Symbols .......................................................................................................................... 8

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 9

Register of Definitions ............................................................................................................... 9

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 11

1.1 Motivation ............................................................................................................. 11

1.2 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 11

1.3 Structure of the Project .......................................................................................... 11

1.4 Literature ............................................................................................................... 11

2 Fundamentals ....................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Breguet Range Equation ........................................................................................ 12

2.2 Breguet Factor for Horizontal Flight ..................................................................... 14

2.3 Fuel Fractions ........................................................................................................ 15

2.4 Breguet Factor for Entire Flight ............................................................................ 16

2.5 Fuel Mass Calculation ........................................................................................... 17

2.6 Aircraft Weights .................................................................................................... 18

2.7 Payload Range Chart ............................................................................................. 19

3 Examination on Fuel vs Range Diagrams ......................................................... 22

3.1 Variable Breguet Factor ........................................................................................ 23

3.2 Fuel Fraction .......................................................................................................... 28

3.3 Weights Based Fuel Calculation ........................................................................... 29

3.4 Further Investigation and Conclusion ................................................................... 31

4 View on different Fuel Consumption Visualizations........................................ 35

4.1 Fuel vs Range Chart .............................................................................................. 35

4.2 Fuel/Range vs Range Chart ................................................................................... 36

4.3 Fuel/Payload vs Range Chart ................................................................................ 37

4.4 Relation, Validation and Comparability ................................................................ 38

5 Fuel Consumption in Aircraft Operation ......................................................... 40

5.1 Fuel Consumption of modern Aircraft .................................................................. 40

5.2 Non-Stop or One-Stop? ......................................................................................... 44

5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 48

5

6 Excel File Implementation .................................................................................. 49

6.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 49

6.2 Exemplary Input .................................................................................................... 51

7 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 56

8 Summary .............................................................................................................. 58

References ............................................................................................................. 60

6

List of Figures

Figure 2.1: Fuel Calculation described in this Chapter .................................................. 12

Figure 2.2: Extended Payload Range Chart ................................................................... 19

Figure 2.3: Required Data for Calculation ..................................................................... 20

Figure 3.1: Bath Tub Curve of an exemplary Aircraft ................................................... 23

Figure 3.2: Breguet-Factor Characteristics..................................................................... 24

Figure 3.3 Figure of actual take-off weight ................................................................... 25

Figure 3.4: Mass Ratio Intervals across the Range ........................................................ 25

Figure 3.5: Non linear Breguet Factor ............................................................................ 26

Figure 3.6: Comparison between linear and non-linear calculated Breguet Factor ....... 26

Figure 3.7: Comparison of Take-off Weights ................................................................ 27

Figure 3.8: Comparison Fuel Fraction............................................................................ 28

Figure 3.9: Take-off Weight Comparison ...................................................................... 29

Figure 3.10: Take-off and Landing Weight Curve ........................................................... 30

Figure 3.11: Bath Tub Curve A320 .................................................................................. 32

Figure 3.12: Bath Tub Curve Boeing 777-300ER ............................................................ 32

Figure 3.13: A320 Bath Tub Curve with different Passenger Loads ............................... 33

Figure 4.1: Fuel Consumption vs Range of an A320 ..................................................... 35

Figure 4.2: Fuel/Range vs Range Chart ......................................................................... 36

Figure 4.3: Fuel per Payload vs Range ........................................................................... 37

Figure 4.4: Comparison of Fuel Visualizations .............................................................. 38

Figure 5.1: Trip Fuel CX289 .......................................................................................... 42

Figure 5.2: Bath Tub Curves Aircraft Models................................................................ 42

Figure 5.3: Comparison of Fuel per Kilogram Payload ................................................. 43

Figure 5.4: Routing Singapore - San Francisco and Singapore Tokyo - San Francisco 44

Figure 6.1: Payload Range Chart A350-900 .................................................................. 51

Figure 6.2: Payload Range Chart Data Input .................................................................. 52

Figure 6.3: Weight Overview A350-900 ........................................................................ 52

Figure 6.4: Weight Version independent Information ................................................... 53

Figure 6.5: Manufacturer's Weight Information ............................................................. 53

Figure 6.6: Calculation Settings ..................................................................................... 54

Figure 6.7: Range Input .................................................................................................. 54

Figure 6.8: Extract of resulting Data .............................................................................. 54

Figure 6.9: Resulting Bath Tub Curve of an Airbus A350-900 ..................................... 55

Figure 7.1: Incorrect Fuel Calculation............................................................................ 56

Figure 7.2: Correct Fuel Calculation .............................................................................. 56

7

List of Tables

Table 2.1: Fuel Fractions on horizontal and non-horizontal flight phases .................... 15 Table 2.2: Range and mass of support points in Payload-Range diagram .................... 20

Table 3.1: Reserve Elements ......................................................................................... 22

Table 3.2: Basic weight data A320 73.500 kg MTOW................................................. 24 Table 3.3: Take-off Weights at respective apaoints in Payload Range Chart ............... 27

Table 3.4: Weights required for interpolation ............................................................... 30

Table 5.1: Aircraft Specifications ................................................................................. 41

Table 5.2: Fuel Consumption Flight CX289 Hong Kong - Frankfurt .......................... 41

Table 5.3: Flight Section Information ........................................................................... 45

Table 5.4: Aircraft Specifications ................................................................................. 45

Table 5.5: Results Boeing 777-300ER Flights only...................................................... 46

Table 5.6: Results Airbus A350-900 and Boeing 777-300ER Flights .......................... 46

Table 5.7: Results Airbus A350-900 Flights only ........................................................ 47

Table 6.1: Required Data for Calculation ..................................................................... 49

Table 6.2: Extracted Data from the Payload Range Chart ............................................ 51

Table 6.3: Given diagrams ............................................................................................ 55

8

List of Symbols

ǻ Difference

B Breguet Range Factor

c Specific Fuel Flow Jet

ѵ Specific Fuel Flow Prop

D Drag

E Glide Ratio

g Earth Acceleration m Mass

Mff Fuel Fraction

PD Shaft Power

R Range

t Time

V Velocity

w Weight

Q Fuel Mass Flow

Șp Efficiency Propeller

9

List of Abbreviations

Clb Climb

Cr Cruise

Des Descend

DOW Dry Operation Weight

Ldg Landing

Loi Loiter

LTO Landing ± Take-Off Cycle

MFW Maximum Fuel Weight

MTOW Maximum Take Off Weight

MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

Res Reserve

To Take-Off

10

List of Definitions

Breguet

Louis Charles Breguet was a 1880 born aircraft designer, who is falsely considered as the RULJLQMPRU RI POH ³Breguet Range Equation´B Originally, this equation was introduced in 1920 by J. G. Coffin in his NACA Report (NACA 1969). Since this equation is known as the Breguet Range Equation, it will be called in this project Breguet Range Equation as well.

Bath Tub Curve

The Bath Tub Curve is a visualization of fuel consumption per passenger and 100 km flight distance over the flown distance. With this diagram, the range, on which an aircraft can be operated most efficient, can be shown. The course of this curve conforms figurative to the profile of a bath tub, where the name originates.

Consumption

Consumption describes the burned fuel during a flight. The fuel consumption in this project does not include the reserves. The fuel weight equals the mass difference between the take-off weight and the landing weight. Fuel Generally, fuel is a material used to produce power or heat through burning. In aviation con- text, fuel is a phrase for kerosene, which is used to power the aircrafts engines.

Long haul

Long haul is a term used for very long flight distances. There is no exact definition for a long haul flight. In this project, a long haul flight is a flight exceeding 12 hours flight time. This range cannot be flown by regular single aisle passenger aircraft. Range The range is the flight distance of an aircraft between take-off and landing. It excludes the dis- tance which can be covered by using the reserves.

Reserves

The reserves are additional fuel carried on every flight to be prepared for unscheduled occur- rences. The size of reserves depends on various factors, such as distance to alternate or weath- er conditions.

Take-off weight

The take-off weight describes the weight of an airplane at the moment of its take-off. 11

1 Introduction

1.1 Motivation

The fuel consumption of an aircraft is generally unknown and there are no reliable sources to get this information. This project enables a rough calculation of the fuel consumption for every specific aircraft, involving aircraft specifications sourced by manufacturer published documents. Furthermore, different visualizations of the fuel consumption data are explained.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the project are a closer look on the calculation of the fuel consumption and the implementation of an Excel file, which enables the user to calculate the required fuel of

MQ\ MLUŃUMIP NMVHG RQ POH ³$LUŃUMIP ŃOMUMŃPHULVPLŃV IRU $LUSRUP SOMQQLQJ´ ROLŃO MUH SXNOLVOHG

by the respective aircraft manufacturer.

1.3 Structure of the Project

Chapter 2

Introduction into underlying mathematic relations to provide a basic un- derstanding to the reader on Fuel Consumption Estimation

Chapter 3

Discussion of fuel vs range illustrations and evaluations of improvement aspects for a more detailed calculation

Chapter 4

Analysis on different Fuel Consumption diagrams and its relation to each other

Chapter 5

View on today´s commercial aircraft operation under consideration of as- certained data

Chapter 6

Explanation of an established Excel file for Fuel Consumption estimation

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Summary of the project

1.4 Literature

This project refers to the Master thesis of Allan MacDonald, (MacDonald 2012), where first assumptions correlating with the topic of fuel calculation were made. This analysis was further accomplished in the project of Finn Wulbrand, (Wulbrand 2016). Within this project, a procedure was invented to gain fuel consumption data by using the pay- load range chart. As a result, the so called ³Bath Tub Curve´ can be illustrated. 12

2 Fundamentals

For the calculation of the fuel mass for a flight, several aspects have to be considered. Hereafter, these aspects will be closer annotated within the next chapters. Figure 2.1: Fuel Calculation described in this Chapter

2.1 Breguet Range Equation

The whole calculation of estimated consumed fuel during a flight is based on the so called ³Breguet Range Equation´, derivated by the French aviation pioneer Louis Breguet (1880- Based on flight mechanics lecture (Scholz 2011), fuel mass flow Q is defined as change of fuel mass mF per time t.

݀ݐ (2.1)

Usually, this is the only mass change of an aircraft during a regular flight. The fuel mass flow Q for a specific aircraft depends on its propulsion. For engine powered aircraft the fuel mass flow QJet is defined as: (2.2) 13 whereas L is the lift coefficient. E is the glide ratio of the considered aircraft. For a propeller powered aircraft, the fuel mass flow QProp results in: vided by the propeller engine. V is the cruise speed. The efficiency is given by ߟ tions Eqn. (2.2) and Eqn. (2.3) are valid for the horizontal flight (cruise flight). To account a distance on dependency of velocity V and time t, generally is used. Following Eqn. (2.1) and (2.4), the change of range dR is: The range R is calculated through integration of Eqn. (2.5): For simplification, the following calculation is based on the range equation of an engine- powered aircraft (Q = QJet). With insertion of Eqn. (2.2) into Eqn. (2.6),

݉݀݉ (2.7)

is formed. By integrating this term, the Breguet Equation is ascertained: ௠మ (2.8) results in This is the Breguet Range Equation, which can be used to calculate the change of aircraft mass during a flight by flown distance given. 14 In order to calculate the change of mass (the consumed fuel) of an aircraft for a flight with the use of public accessible data, the Breguet Range Equation cannot be used in this form, since data e.g. the specific fuel consumption or the glide ratio are not published by the aircraft manufacturer. Therefore, a different procedure, which is based on the payload-range diagram of an aircraft, is used for the fuel mass calculation.

2.2 Breguet Factor for Horizontal Flight

The data required for the Breguet Range equation relies on public non-accessible data. In (MacDonald 2012) and (Wullbrand 2016) a procedure is demonstrated, which enables the use of the Breguet Range equation by making use of public accessible data. To achieve this, the Breguet Factor is adjusted. Based on Eqn. (2.9), the Breguet Factor is written as:

This forms the Breguet Range Equation to:

A reposition of Eqn. (2.11) leads to:

(2.12) For this calculation of the Breguet Factor, every data can be obtained from the Payload Range

Diagram.

Please note, this way of calculation is only valid for the horizontal flight. 15

2.3 Fuel Fractions

To adapt the Breguet Factor calculation not only to the horizontal flight (cruise), but to the whole flight period including take off, climb, cruise, descend, loiter and landing, Fuel Frac- tions are applied (MacDonald 2012).

A Fuel Fraction ܯ

mass m1 at the beginning of this phase of flight.

݉ଵ (2.13)

The Fuel Fraction ܯ

்݉௔௞௘ ௢௙௙ (2.14)

Compendious, it can be written as:

In terms of flight phase, this Fuel Fractions are separated into two different groups: Table 2.1: Fuel Fractions on horizontal and non-horizontal flight phases Flight phase Horizontal flight Non-horizontal flight

Fuel Fraction ܯ௙௙ǡ஼௥, ܯ௙௙ǡோ௘௦, ܯ௙௙ǡ௅௢௜ ܯ௙௙ǡ்௢, ܯ௙௙ǡ஼௟௕, ܯ௙௙ǡ஽௘௦, ܯ

Following Table 2.1, the Fuel Fraction for an entire flight can be written as: Based on calculations with Optimization in Preliminary Aircraft Design Software (OPerA), a value of has been detected as most precisely (MacDonald 2012). It will be further used to adjust the Breguet Factor to cover the entire flight within the calculation. 16

2.4 Breguet Factor for Entire Flight

The Breguet Factor in Eqn. (2.12)

is limited to the horizontal flight. Since the calculation described in this chapter should cover the entire flight including non-horizontal flight phases, the Fuel Fraction was introduced in

Chapter 2.6.

A Fuel Fraction for an entire flight can be written after reordering Eqn. (2.13) as: With inclusion of Eqn. (2.16), the entire flight is depicted with: In order to cover the entire flight, the mass ratio is adjusted to rely on the horizontal flight mass ratio: Following, Eqn. (2.20) is appointed to Eqn. (2.12): This Breguet Factor is used for the final fuel mass calculation in this project. 17

2.5 Fuel Mass Calculation

Based on Breguet, the range can be estimated with Eqn. (2.11) where m1 is the mass prior the take-off and m2 is the aircraft mass after landing. The differ- ence between m1 and m2 can be assumed as burned fuel mass mfuel. Thus, following equation applies (Wullbrand 2016):

With Eqn. (2.23) , Eqn. (2.22) can be written as:

In order to calculate the estimated fuel mass mfuel, the rearrangement results in: ஻െͳ൰ (2.25) This is the final equation to calculate the estimated fuel mass mfuel, depending on the range R and the Breguet Factor B. To highlight the dependency on the range, this equation may be used: ஻െͳ൰ (2.26) 18

2.6 Aircraft Weights

The planes weight is categorized in different loads. This chapter describes the constitution of all required aircraft weights and its components. The Manufacturers Empty Weigh (MEW) is the structural weight of an airplane, including the basic equipment, the engines and all required systems. The Operation Empty Weight (OEW) includes the MEW and also customer specific perma- nently installed equipment such as passenger seats or galleys. The Basic Weight consist of the OEW and furthermore all operational required fluids includ- ing hydraulics, oils and the remaining fuel, which is unusable. The Dry Operating Weight (DOW) contains the Basic Weight and additionally the weight of the crew, its baggage as well as water and catering for the passengers. passengers, their baggage and cargo. Take-off Weight (TOW) is defined as the Zero Fuel Weight plus the amount of usable fuel at the moment of take-off The maximum fuel weight (MFW) describes the maximum possible fuel mass, which can be carried by the aircraft. If the MFW is loaded, a payload reduction is necessary. For the Zero Fuel Weight and the Take-off Weight, typically their respective maximum de- rivative Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) and Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW) are used. For the Zero Fuel Weight and the Take-off Weight, their respective maximum derivative Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) and Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW) are used typically. 19

2.7 Payload Range Chart

The data required for the determined calculation in this project is extracted from the manufac- turer published Payload Range Diagrams. This type of diagram visualizes the behaviour of the maximum possible take-off mass in dependence to the planned flight distance. The performance of every aircraft can be described with the extended Payload Range Dia- gram given in Figure 2.2. The blue line describes the maximum possible payload mass de- pending on the distance of the planned route. The actual take-off weight of the aircraft is rep- resented by the yellow line. Section 1 shows the maximum possible payload with an increasing amount of fuel, which can be carried by the aircraft until the range of point A, which is known as the design point of an aircraft. At this point, the maximum take-off weight is reached, but the fuel tanks are still ca- pable of more fuel. For achieving additional range, a payload reduction, visualized in section 2, is necessary. Si- multaneously the amount of fuel increases for additional range. The fuel tanks are fully loaded for the first time at point B. From this point onwards, the fuel tanks remain fully loaded. A further range increase requires additional payload reduction, demonstrated in line 3, until the ferry range can be flown. At this range, no payload can be carried on board the aircraft. Range Take -off Weight OEW MZFW

Ferry Range

1 2 3 MTOW A

B Payload Mass

Maximum Fuel mass

Maximum Payload

C

Figure 2.2: Extended Payload Range Chart

20 For the calculation of the fuel mass, following information are required:

Figure 2.3: Required Data for Calculation

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